VWVv. V'

^s/yv^v*'

^<«s:;'

V^ V . V- ^yy,

:"'v:yi^S?'

\^ - ' - V

;^.'wwyy^•

^!!^!!!!-^!*V^&*#^'^'

.vc C. C«^-

re cc
/ C CC '

( c^;

■<'CO';^.'««

:cv'

c^ >^<<:^C

^C *£

«^ ^

■-<:.:.• C C t'<

C < <

^a^ ^

xrr^gj:^c

^KCC

CO

cc
<c

<r

'«

d •

<<

«tc

cc

c <t«

<r < * <

^''C"""

«£ C

<:<

•-<<:

:^ <<:

«.»<!

< <

(CC

s cc '

CcC

c

fC

C' ^c.

«. <

: c:^

■ •-<

: >.€~

« *C

■<-v

.<

'C' «<^<:

C <

[:: <

<:.c <"
CC C^
C.C CO c

«; c c •
etc O <
> c C ^ '

rc.C<X c
- c C ci c-

f C C< c

»- r" .<-<■ c

■■■■•CV.t-0 c'
c Ct c

r C <St C C <

. ctiL c c c

c<0 V.

CCC

.. <; c -

CC.C C -
Vc«.C C
"cccc c

<: <.^ c c «cc c «:c

C C< < <

C <C'C^ C'C
CC^ c c

t cf *- <i <r> c c «; c:
<: CC c

C Ci<«
C Cc a

C ^

. \- ^■.^'fc<s

c <- 3f * <:c
c C 4C f C C^c

cc c

* ^c<::.c

< C<_«^ c

<«rc < c"^

%: c C

-r' c <

. c c«:^A'

C ■ ««-<^c

^ C- ^'^rC cc

: c c^ c>
. CCC/C;

c c^'C cC ^
< c qC. < C

' Cc c^ < C ■
dc c C^ <L C

c • c c^

' C- c c . < C,

- C C C

c <r <rc c «

cc <rcc,<

«: c

cC c
-rd C

cC CC

cC^^ C <
«r . < «
or c «
«.• < r
« . <■■ ••<
«< < f
«:. ■, <

(. c ^

cc c (

CC cc c C

<t <•■ c C

c '<'-'' *^
Cc C cc ^ ^£r--..^<.Y

^-^ ^ CC «n ^r <: .c d-

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

SECOND SERIES.

VOLUME THE FIRST.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LIBRARY

MEW YORK

LONDON:
JOHN MUREAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

18G5.

^0

Stf^vfiA

These EXPERI5£E^TS, it is true, auk xot easy; still THi!r are in the i-owek of every

TIITXKING HDSBANDMAK. HE VTHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT O.NE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APl'LICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OP THOSE
WHO CMIE AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST ES'DIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE Flr.ST CARE OP ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OP OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FOPJIS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTPJBDTE THE EXECUTION OP
THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.

Von Thaee, Principles of Agriculture.

LO.MWN: PIUKTED by WJLLIAM CLOWES and sons, duke STREET, STAMFORD STREET.
AND CHARING CROSS.

^

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.— Second Series.

Statistics : — page ^

Meteorology, for the six months ending Docembei- 31, lSC-1 .. i
Public Health ditto ditto .. .. v

Price of Provisions ditto ditto .. .. vir

AVeekly Average Price of Wlieat via

Vital Statistics for the six nionths ending June oO, ISfJG .. .. ix;
Meteorology ditto ditto .. .. xii
British AVlieat sold, and Imports of Corn, &c. ditto .. .. xv
Price of Provisions ditto .. .. xvi\
Pauperism xviii

ARTICLE PAGE

I.— Eoyal Agricultural College of Cirencester. P>y C, Lawrekck 1
11.— On Breaking up Pastures. By C. Belcher. Prize Essay .. 10
III. — On the Planting, liaising, and After-Management of Orchards,
and their Various Kinds of Fruits, for Culinary and other
\!scs, considered as jMarketable Productions of a Farm
adapted to the Counties of Worcester, Hereford, and Glou-
cester. By Clement Cadle. Worcester Prize Essay .. .. 18
r^. — Observations on Parasites aud Parasitic Diseases as affecting
Domesticated Animals. By James Beart Simonds, Professor

of Cattle Pathology, Pioyal Veterinary College o'3

V. — Lois-Weedon Wheat-Growing with Horse (or Steam) Tillage.

By John Algernon Clarke 'iS

VI. — Covered Cattle-yards. By W. J. Moscrop SS

VII.— Tea Years of East Lothian Farming. By R. Scot Skirving 90
' VIII. — Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. By Dr. Voclckcr .. 113

IX. — On Stockipg Land. By the llev. J. L. Brereton 130

X. — Professor Voelcker's Annual Report 1-il

XT. — On Cross-Dreeding in Horses. By W^. C. Spooncr .. .. 148

XII. — IJeport on the Royal Veterinary College ]'j6

XIII.— Statistics of I-ive Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in

the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert 1~2

Xn\ — On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Palm-nut Kernel

Meal aud Cake. By Dr. Voelcker 1"G-

XV. — On the Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax. By the

Rev. Nathaniel M. Brown. Prize Essay IBl

XVT.— Flax-Cultivation in the County of Suffolk. By H. Wells .. 194
XVII. — Remarks on the General Aspects of Flax-Culture in England

and Ireland. By P. H. Frere 197

XVIII. — A Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer. By C. E. Amos 204:
X!X. — 'I'hc ^Tanagement of Sheep Stock on Heavy and Light Land.

By John Coleman. Prize Essay 239

XX. — The Reproductive Powers of Domesticated Animals. By
Henry Tanner, jNI.R.A.C, Professor of Pairal Economy,

Queen's College, Birmingham 2G2

XXL— Water-Supply. By the liev. J. Clutterbuck. Prize Essay 271
XXII. — On a New Form of Disease among Lambs. By R. S. Rey-
nolds, M.R.C.V.S.Eng., Alfreton, Derbyshire 288

XXIII.— Functions of Soda-Salts in Agriculture. By Dr. Voelcker .. 298
XXIV. — Rise and Progress of Shorthorns. By H. H. Dixon. Prize Essay 317

XXV.— On Sheep. By H. Evershed 329

XXVI. — The Comparative Profit from Making Cheese or Butter, Selling

Milk, or Grazing. By W. H. Heywood. Prize Essay .. 338

CONTENTS,

ARTICLE. ■ 'page

XXVII.— On Dairy-Farminp;. By W. T. Carnngton 344

XXVIII.— Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, &c. By B. Herbert 334
XXIX. — Growtli of Lucerne on Thin Light Soils and Chalky Loams .. 359
XXX. — Beport on the Exhibition of Live Stock at the BIymouth

Meeting. By John Dent Dent, M.B., Senioi- Steward .. 3G0
XXXI. — General Beport on the Exhibition of Implements at the
BIymouth Meeting. By John Coleman and F. A. Baget,
C.E., Cor. Mem. of the Franklin Institute, &c., &c 373

Miscellaneous Commuxications and Xotices:

1. Experiments with Beruvian Guano mixed witli a small

quantity of Suli)huric Acid. By J. B. Lawes, F.H.S., F.C.S. 213

2. Experiments on the Artificial Fecundation of Wheat. B}'

J. B. Lawes, F.B.S., F.C.S 215

3. KohlBabi. By Charles Lawrence 219

4. Comparative Experiment on the Use of Wheat-meal and of

Linseed-cake for Fatting Sheep. By B. li. Frere 220

5. Letter on Covered Yards. By H, S. Thompson, M.B 222

Adstract Beport oe Agricultural Discussions :

On Town Sewage, By J. B. Lawes "*" 220

The Breeding and Management of Sheep. By T. l''llmaii . .. 40G

Natural Deposits of Botash in Germany. By Dr. Voelcker .. ,, 412

Flax Cnlturc. By Beale Browne 421

Agricultural Education. By J. Chalmers ^lortou 43()

Irrigation. B>v Brofessor Voelcker 404

Typhoid Fever in Bigs. By Dr. W. Budd 472

APPENDIX.

PAGE

List of Officers of the Boyal Agricultural Society of England, 13G5-G6 i, xxix

Standing Committees for 18G5-6(5 iii, xxxi

lleport of the Council to the General Meetin'z, December 8, 1804 ,, vi
Cash Account and Balance-sheets, from 1st July to December, 31, 18G4 x — xii

Country Meeting Account, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 18(!4 xiii

Schedule of Brizes : Devonport and BIymouth Meeting, 18G5 ,, xiv — xxv

Essays and Bcjiorts — Award for 18G4-G5 xxvi, Ixiii

Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinarv Brivileges ,, xxvii, Ixxvii

Beport of the Council to the General Meeting, May 22, 1805.. .. xxxiii

Cash Account and l^alauce-slieets, from 1st Jan. to Jmie30, 1805 xxxvi, xxxvii

Memoranda of Meetingj, Baymeut of Subscription, I'tc xxxviii

List of Stewards, Judges, &-C., at the BIymouth Meeting ., .. xxxix

Award of Brizes : Devonport and Plymouth Meeting, i8(;5 .. .. Ix — Ixxii
Prizes for Essays and Beports for 18G0 ., ,. Ixxiv

General Index, Vols. I. — XXV.

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The BinJpr is desired to collect togptlicr all the Appendix nuitter, with Uoman numeral folios, and
7)lace it at the end of each voluino of the Jouni.il, exccpiin;; Titles and Contents, and Sutistics
kc, which are in all (■a.s".-i to be placed at the beginning of the Volume: the lettering at tneback to
include a statement of the year as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to I83y-40, the
eccond to 1S41, the third to 18J2, tlie fourth to 13 13, and so on.

In Reprints of tli- Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body of
the .lournal (which at th • time had become obsolete), were omitted; the Roman numeral folios,
however (lor con venience of referetice), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retainr'd.

CONTENTS OF PART I., YOL. I.

Second Series.

Statistics : — pagk

Meteorology, for the six months ending December 31, 18G4 .. ii
rublic Health ditto ditto .. .. VI
Price of Provisions ditto ditto .. .. vil
Weekly Average Price of Wheat viii

AETICLE PAGE

I. — The Pioyal Agricultural College of Cirencester. By C.

Lawrence 1

II. — On Breaking up Pastures. By C. Belcher. Prize Essay . . 10

III, — On the Planting, Raising, and After-Management of Orchards,
and their Various Kinds of Fruits, for Culinary and other
uses, considered as Marketable Productions of a Farm
adapted to the Counties of Worcester, Hereford, and Glou-
cester. By Clement Cadle. Worcester Prize Essay .. .. 18

IV. — Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases as affecting
Domesticated Animals. By James Heart Simonds, Professor
of Cattle Pathology, Pioyal Veterinary College 33

V. — Lois-Weedon Wheat-Growing with Horse (or Steam) Tillage.

By John Algernon Clarke 73

VL— Covered Cattle-yards. By W. J. Moscrop 88

VII. — Ten Years of East Lothian Farming. By R. Scot Skirving 99

VIII. — On some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. By Dr. Au-
gustus Voelcker 113

IX.— On Stocking Laud. By the Eev. J. L. Brereton 130

X. — Professor Voelcker's Annual Report 141

XI. — On Cross-Breeding in Horses. By W. C. Spooner ... .. 148

XII. — Report on the Royal Veterinary College 1G6

XIII. — Statistics of liive Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in

the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert 172

XIV. — On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Palm-nut Kernel

Meal and Cake. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker 176

XV. — On the Cultivation and Proper Management of Flax. By the

Rev. Nathaniel M. Brown. Prize Essay 181

XVI.— Flax-Cultivation in the County of Suffolk. By II. Wells .. 194

XVII. — Remarks on the General Aspects of Flax-Culture in England

and Ireland. By P. H. Frere 197

XVIII. — A Description of the Newcastle Dynamometer. By C. E. Amos 204

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Miscellaneous CoMMtrNicATiONs and Notices :

1. Experiments with Peruvian Guano mixed with a small

quantity of Sulphuric Acid. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S. 213

2. Experiments on the Artificial Fecundation of Wheat. By

J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S 215

3. Kohl Rabi. By Charles Lawrence 219

4. Comparative Experiment on the Use of Wheat-meal and of

Linseed-cake for Fatting Sheep. By P. H. Frere 220

5. Letter on Covered Yards. By H. S. Thompson, M.P 222

Abstract Eefort of Agricultural Discussions :

Lecture and Discussion on Town Sewage. By J. B. Lawes .. 226

APPENDIX.

PAGE

List of Officers of the Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, 1865 ., i

Standing Committees for 1865 iii

Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, &c v

Pieport of the Council to the General Meeting, December 8, 1864 .. .. vi
Cash Account and Balance-sheets, from 1st July to December 31, 1864 x — xii

Country Meeting Account, Newcastle on Tyne, 1864 xiii

Schedule of Prizes : Devonport and Plymouth Meeting, 1865 .. xiv — xxv

Essays and Eeports— Award xxvi

Members' Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privileges .. xxvii, xxviii

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the aid of each volume- of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics
&c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume : the lettering at the back to
include a statement of the year as well as the volmne; the first volimie belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the tliird to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In Preprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body of
the Journal (which at the time had become obsolete), were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios,
however (fur convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained.

tf J^

STATISTICS

THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF
PROVISIONS, &c., &c.,

FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1864.

Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly RejiOrts of the Reg Istrar- General . —
The Corn Returns and Diagram are prepared from Official Documents
expressly for this Journal.

VOL. I. — S. S.

(11)

ON

THE METEOKOLOGY OF ENGLAND

DUKING

THE QUARTER ENDING SEPTEMUER 30, 1864.
By JAMES GLAISHEE, Esq., F.K.S.,

SEC. OF THE BBITISH METKOKOLOOICAL SOCIETY.

For a period of 39 days preceding the close of the last quarter
there was an average daily deficiency of 2i° of temperature, and
the present quarter opened with a continuation of the same weather,
with somewhat increased intensity ; the deficiency of temperature
to the middle of July being as large as 3° daily on the average.
On the 17th July a warm period set in and continued for 25 days,
and the daily temperature was in excess to 3^°; this was succeeded
by 20 dajs of very cold weather, viz., from 9th August to 28th
August, whose average daily temperature was 4° in defect ; and it
is remarkable that this deficiency of temperature fell on the nights
only, the days were of their average warmth but the nights were
very cold, causing the extremes of temperature to range from great
heat by day to almost frost at night, and quite to frost on vegeta-
tion. A period of 12 days followed of warmth, the average daily
temperature being 2f° in excess ; then the 10 days from September
10th to 20th, the temperature of the air was daily 2° below the
average value, and the last 10 days of the quarter were in excess
to li° daily.

The mean high day temperatures in the months of July, August,
and September were 75°-3, 72°-8, and 67°-3, being l°-7 above in
July, and of the same values as the average in August and Sep-
tember.

The mean low night temperatures in the months of July, August,
and September were 51°-2, 48°-5, and 49°-l, being l°-7 below in
July, 4°-8 below in August, and 0°-3 above in September.

The mean temperatures of the dew-point were 2°' I, 6°*3, and
l°-2 below their respective average. That in August was 47°-8.
The lowest before recorded was 51°-8 on two or three occasions.

The fall of rain was in defect in July and August, and slightly
in excess in September. It was 0-3 in. in July, being 2-4 in. in
defect; 1-4 in. in August, being 1-0 in. deficient; and 2-8 in. in
September, being 0-4 in. in excess.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
months ending August, constituting the three summer months, was
59°-6, being 0°-5 below the average of the preceding 93 years.

( 111 )

> °

i1 e

lis

_ ^ <■>

feb '" b

1 1 1

b

1

2

Highest
Reading

at
Night.

t-~ <s

i-A ^J-»0

%
"Si •->

•s EP •

.^

s

tc '^ *"^ ■^

ON

a

s.s s

00 ri

't ^

5

d
S

■=h

i

,A r-

i ^

S0£

00

IS

> -•

»NA »r\ ON

!^

■^

■° s

00

§

^

Mi^

.£000

M

<<^

a 5-

1

C j: ^

>

to

c

1

n cs

CO M

CC '"A

a

r» rA r^

^

H

«

rA

QJ

1=5

a

-d- w

S^

'^

1

S b

2^-

r^0O »^^

^ ^ b

io SS 2

w 00 VD

c 00

5 > «

++.

+

a st?-"^ J

^ ~N b

vO vO

r.5

<S

W IV^ M

N

Soi

1

'd- 'i-

<

1^5

V ^»

(S r» >-i

"

a

2^2

c ri -
- . 1 +

E :-A

I4i

M rA (N

r

tf

^*

■3

c5S

1 1 1

rA

§

a

. r^ •!)- 00

a ■ • ■

-OWN

■<

a

VD 00 t^

r-

i3

5

Ps

S

0„ r-.0^
•J^ -^h -^

ON

ii tog
ifj 2 >>

g++ '

+

o

—

cfeS

a"3^

e « s

n

>

2

a

■« "^ 'o
1 1 1

1

C3

53

1

1^ r^ ""n
^ »j^ ^J-^ wr,

H

?

go a5

in r«

i^

a

r^ i-A M

i: S)g

'^

[l]

03

.

S? T ?

S

Oo 1^ r^

-:f

.^- £ >>

ITN K^ U^

»-r\

11

i>n

000
+ + •

+

So m

i tf g

n 00

°b *- b

»^

x5

a

VD 00 t^

V

"o

53

_• CO c^ ^--
"" ON CN ON

oc

ON

So ,5

<1

ifl

ob '^H b

^2 >>

so r»

+ ' +

1

11

ex

1 1 1

1

§

00 vO O^

■^

XI

•3i

C^

"^N r^

l_l

r^

**D w^ kr\

^

r^v:D r^

1 —

r^

en

. . b

• « a

a

CD n

• ■s a

'i

>^S!CI^

S

*— 1

>a

^<rri

1 »<.

1

■

^<:n

( IV )
ON

THE METEOKOLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING

THE QUARTER ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1864.

By JAMES G L A I S H E E, Esq., F.E.S.,

8EC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOC'IETT.

The "weather at the "beginning of the quarter was cold, and the
average deficiency of daily temperature amounted to 2°. From the
12th October to the 29th the period was warm; an excess of
temperature of 2|° on the average of those days took place. A
bitter cold period succeeded, continuing till the 12th November,
during which a daily deficiency was experienced of no less than
6i°. From the 13th November to the 13th December the weather
was generally warm, but there were cold periods of two and three
days together ; but upon the whole there was an excess of tempe-
rature averaging 2^° daily. From the 14th December to the end
of the quarter the weather was changeable. On the 17th the defi-
ciency of temperature was as large as 15|°, and on the 20th there
was an excess of 3°, followed again by a considerable deficiency,
which generally prevailed ; and the average defect of temperature
from the 14th to the end of the month was nearly 4° daily.

The mean high day temperatures in the months of October,
November, and December were 68°*2, 48°-5, and 42°'5, being
0°*5, 0°"6, and 2°-8 respectively below their averages.

The mean low night temperatures in the months of October,
November, and December were 44°-l, 35°-5, and 33°-7, being of the
same value as the average in October, and below their averages to
the amount of 2° in the remaining two months.

The mean temperatures of the dew-point were 2°-7, 2°-l, and 2°-7
below their respective averages.

The fall of rain was in defect to the amount of 1 '7 in. in October,
slightly above the average in November, and showed a deficiency of
1*3 in. in December. The amounts fallen were respectively 1*1 in.,
2'6 in., and 0'6 in.

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
months ending November, constituting the three autumn months,
was 49°'8, being 0°'3 above the average of the preceding 93 years.

( V )

3
O
C
a
>

o
1

<

o
ce ^

w

3

3

niff. from
average of
23 years.

ti o b b
1

rA

b
1

5

e
a)

a

i

j3

o
to

! ^

Highest
Reading

at
Nigbt.

rAvO O

O •-, L "rA
vA <:f -^

S
1

1^ ^.■^^0 ••'^

t^ O OO

(S HH M

S 00

h3 -

3 =

lis

i

.5 o o o
1 1 1

jj 00 r< c>

1^

O
1

rA

SI
O

a

<

M„.

CO

O O >A

■<^ rA r)-

S r,

3 rA

o

3

1
C

S

&

p

IS

a
1
<

So i

P Oj b

55«

° b « b

o
b

».A ■<:^

1 I

^ O 30

o

M

So oj

5 §^

r^ r» PA

a M O M
■" 1 + 1

OO

a «
5 1

1.

c 5^

ri ^ ri
1 i !

t

1

1

3

~ w r) b

g rA

i

t^ o^ -*•

° ;^ .■-. V

Tl- rA r.^

1-^

CO
rA

o

bO i +

+

1

i ° £

° M M n
1 1 1

1

1

t- rA ^ VA
OO ^^ WA »A

° ^bo

t}- M- cA

5-

11

•s

i = d
5^-

M OO n

r- r. Th
C p M O

"" b b b
1 1 +

rA

b"
b

1

So 2

o " a^

° b r. M
1 1

rA

M

c3

OS

rl- vO rA

2 O O OO
O^ C^ O^

r< r< r<

So M

OO ■^ VA

° b b b

o
b

CM
o

i°2

0> rA rJ

1 1 1

1

i

°b -i>
"A -^ i-A

f-A

g

OO O O

r-~oo OO

rA

OD

Tl5

CD
GO

CO

ta

h
Z

o

CO h
00 z

•I ^

s > s

o CS 1^

d

^ ia

( VI )

STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

1st Quarter. — The total nnmber of deaths in the quarter was
112,133 against 112,384 in the previous summer quarter, but con-
siderably more than in the same quarter of 1862. The annual rate
of mortality in the quarter was 2-139 per cent, of the population,
against the summer average of 2*000 per cent. In the country dis-
tricts the mortality was 1*831 (the average being 1*713) ; whilst in
urban populations it was 2*374: (the average being 2-253).

2nd Quarter. — The number of deaths in the three months ending
31st December was 123,458, the highest number ever registered in
this quarter. The death-rate was 2*349 per cent, (against an
average of 2*180). No higher death-rate has been observed in
England in this quarter, excepting in 1847, 1848, and 1858.
495,520 deaths were registered in the year, the mortality being at
the rate of 2*385 per cent, against 2-214, the average of the previous
ten years.

PKICE OF PEOVISIONS.

Ist Quarter. — Tlio average price of wheat was 425. 3c?. per quarter,
which is less than in the September quarter of last year ; while in the
corresponding quarter of 1862 the price was 56s. 10c/. The average
of the highest and lowest prices of beef at Leadenhall and Newgate
Markets was hhd. per lb., and of mutton Qi\d. Best potatoes ranged
from 80s. to 120s. per ton at the Waterside Market, South wark.

2nd Quarter. — Wheat sold at decreasing prices, the average for
the three months being 38s. bd. per quarter against 40s. Qd. in the
corresponding period of 1863, and 48s. 2d. in 1862. The high price
of meat is a matter of daily experience with all consumers ; in the
last quarter of 1863 beef sold on an average at Ad. to 6 id per lb.
(by the carcase) at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets, but in the
quarter ending 31st December last the price ranged from A^d. to Id.,
according to quality. The wholesale price of mutton was bd. to 7c?.
in the last quarter of 1863, and it was bid. to l^d. in the same
period of 1864. The dry summer was prejudicial to the crop of
potatoes, and the price was 25 per cent, higher than in the autumn
of 1863 ; the wholesale price of the best qualities was 60s. to 80s.
in the last quarter of 1863, and rose to an average of 80s. to 95s. in
the same quarter of 1864.

( VII )

THE PKICE OF PKOVISIONS.

The AVEUACE PaicEs of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes ; also the average
Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters
ending December 31, 18G4.

Wheat sold
in the 290
Cities and
Towns in
England and
Wales making
Returns.*

Wheat and

Wheat Flour

entered for

Home

Consumption

at Chief Ports

of Great

Britain.*

Average Trices of

Quarters
ending

Average

Price

of

Consols
(for

Money).

Average

Price of

Wheat per

Quarter

ill
England

and
Wales.

Meat per lb. at Leadeuhall

and Newgate Markets

(by the Carcase).

Best

I'olatoes '

per Ton

at Waterside

Market,

Average number of
(Quarters weekly.

Beef.

Mutton.

South walk.

1862
Dec. 31

1863
Mar. 31

June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

1864
Mar. 31

June 30

Sept. 30

Dec. 31

£.
93 i

921
93J
93

r-l

91

91a
89J

89i

S. d.

48 2

46 7

46 2

45 7
40 6

40 4
39 7

42 3
38 5

85,522

75.819

82,458

73,920

113,397

99,0^3
92,569

85,234
100,833

258,095

139,429
106,633
157,582
M5,823

138,523

100,102

351,079

454,436

4d.—6id.
Mean ^^d.

4d.—eid.
Mean 5^^.

4ld.-6^d.
Mean 5frf.

4^d.-eid.
Mean 5^^.

4d.—Hd.
Mean ^{d.

4hd.—Hd.
Mean ^^d.

4\d.—Gld.
Mean c,ld.

4id.—eid.
Mean 5^^.

4hd.-7d.
Mean std.

sid.-eid.

Mean bd.

^d.-td.
Mean td.

4\d.—bld.
Mean 5f </.

4fc/.— 6|d.
Mean 5|<f.

^d.--jd.
Mean dd.

^Id.-id.
Mean i)\d.

Sld.--jd.
Mean G^d.

iid.-ld.
Mean byt.

b\d.--]\d.
Mean b\d.

90s. 1 1 OS.

Mean loos.

1 20s. — 1 3 OS.
Mean 125s.

iios. — 130S.
Mean 120s.

70s. — 105s.
Mean 87s. bd.

60s. — 80s.
Mean 70s,

55s.— 70s.
Mean 62s. bd.

40s.— 60s.
Mean 50s.

Bos. — 1 2 OS.
Mean loos.

Bos. — 95s.
Mean B7S. bd.

Col.

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

* Note. — The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the 13 weeks
ending December 31st, 1862, 1,111,787; for tlie 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1863, 985,649;
for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1863, 1,073,126; for the 13 weeks ending September
30th, 1863, 960,956; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1863, 1,474,160; for the 13
weeks ending March 31st, 1864, 1,287,171; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1864,
1,203,406; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1864, 1,108,051; and for the quarter
ending December 31st, 1864 (14 weeks), 1,411,663. The total number of quarters entered
for Home Consumption iu the same period was respectively, 3,355,239; 1,812,585; 1,386,233 ;
2,048,568; 1,895,705; 1,800,806; 1,301,323; 4,564,027; and 6,362,103.

5

H

H

td

>
o

o

o

o

o

3

Oh

a

>-
<

hj
w

CO

00
rH

s

1

1

<

<

o

(>

»
•

s

o

1

C

-

..

..

..

-«

»

•1

1-

•

'"

':-\

»

JO

a

(

>'

'

,1

»

•

-

i

1

1 '

(

*

,

■(

»

. 3

i

•

■l

»
4

».

4

1,

"«

».

■^

«

;--•

1

"•

1

>.

,.

1

s,

-

(

»■

-

•'

1-

•-,

'(

»

1

<

»• ■

■(

1-

■1

1

^

rt

s

..1

>

•'

>

g

1

(-

::

.(
>,

1

1.-

i

1

»

■,

»■

..

■1

1

P4

I"" '

<»^;12. OOOOOOOCCNC>CT\tT!:7M^C^ C^X■ 00 CO

ii

VITAL STATISTICS ; METEOROLOaY ; BRITISH
WHEAT SOLD; IMPORTATIONS OF CORN;
PRICES OF FOOD ; PAUPERISM.

The matter is selected from the lieports of the riEOisTKAn-GENERAL ; from
Mr. GiiAisiiEu's Meteorological T^ihlcs, and Not?s on the Weather ; and
from Returns ff the Board of Tkade.

Births and Df;ATns ix the First Six Months of 1865 in
England and AVales.

In the frst qnarter the number of births was 104,287. The birth-
rate per annum, or proportion of children born to 100 persons
living, was o'768, against an average of 3-627. The birth-rate was
high beyond any example furnished by the forty quarters of the ten
years 1855-64.

In the second quarter the births woi-e 192,921. The annual birth-
rate for the quarter was 3*691 per cent, against an average of 3-603.
It was remarkably high. In London, the birth-rate of the same
three months was 3-515 per cent. ; in Manchester, 3-624: ; in Livei--
pool, 4-173; in Leeds, 4-497. In Glasgow it was as high as 4-604.

In the Jirst quarter the number of deaths in England and Wales
was 140,646, being less than in the same period of 1864, when it
was 143,030, but much greater than in that of 1863, when it was
128,096. In the March quarter of four years, 1859-62, the number
varied little from 122,000.

The annual rate of mortality (viz., deaths of the quarter x 4 to
100 persons living) was 2-728, against an average in ten March
quarters of 2-522. Since the March quarter of 1855, the returas
suppl}' no example of as higli a death-rate, with the exception of
the death-rate of the same quarter in last year, which was 2-773 per
cent. Bronchitis and pneumonia, scarlatina, fever, and small-pox,
prevailed both in town and countiy. The death-rate in the Welsh
division rose to 2-951, under the influence of small-pox, scarlatina,

VOL. I.— S. H. A 2

( X )

or otiier zymotic disease, which ravaged Cardiff, Llantriisaint,
Merthyr Tydfil, Aherdare, Neath, Swansea, &c.

In the second quarter the nnmher of deaths was 110,006 against
118,121 and 110,899 in the same three months of 1863 and 1864
respectively. The returns of London in the last three springs dis-
covered, as regards absolute numbers, a near approach to identity ;
but those of the kingdom generally showed a decrease in the spring
of 1865 ; Wales, and some northern parts of England, where
epidemic diseases have been rife, or active industrial operations
have attracted population, being the only important exceptions.
The singularly fine weather exercised a beneficial influence on the
l^ublic health; and the effect would doubtless have been more
marked in the death registers if the preceding March had been less
cold and ungenial. The winter months, and especially March, were
as remarkable for cold as the late spring season was for heat ; and
many bronchial affections, which the former period transmitted, ran
their course to a fatal termination after the propitious change of
■weather had begun. The following counties may be mentioned
amongst those which exhibited a decrease of deaths : Hampshire,
Berkshire, Hertfordshire, Oxfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridge-
shire, Suffolk, Wiltshire, Cornwall, Staffordshire, Worcestershire,
Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Eutlandshiro, Cheshire, the East and
North Piidings of Yorkshire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. In
Lancashire the deaths in the spring quarter of 1803 and 1864 were
16,541 and 16,415 ; in last quarter 16,806. In the West Eiding of
Yorkshire they were in the same periods 10,469, 9991, and 10,431.
In South Wales they were 3871, 4056, 4779.

In England the annual rate of mortality for the June quarter was
2*220 per cent, (deaths to a hundred persons living) against an
average of 2*191 for the corresponding quarter in ten previous years.
In 1803 and 1804 the rate was 2-308 and 2-200 per cent.

The South-eastern Division, embracing Surrey, Kent, Sussex,
Hampshire, and Berkshire, was the most healthy ; for in it the rate
of mortality was only 1*882 per cent. The next in degree of health
was that which contains the Sotith Midland Counties, where the
mortality was 2-002. In four other divisions, viz., the Eastern,
South AVestern, West Midland, and North Midland Counties, it did
not rise as high as 2*1 per cent. In the North-western Counties
(Cheshire and Lancashire), in Y'orkshire, and Wales, it was but
little under 2-5 per cent. The Eegistrars of Welsh districts, as in
the previous quarter, reported measles, scarlatina, and small-pox as
diseases that had been prevalent and fatal.

( XI )

TopuLATiox ; Births and Dkatiis ; Annual Birth and Dputii Eaths in
Teu large Towns, in the First Two Quarters of 18G5.

First Quarter.

Cities, &c. I

Total of 10 large towns

London

Liverpool (Borough) ..
Manchester (City;
Salford (Borough)
Birmingham (Borougli)
Leeds (Borough)
Bristol (City) .. ..
Edinburgh ( City)
Glasgow (City)'.. ..
Dublin (City) .. ..

Kstimated

I'opulatioii

in tlie Middle

of the Year

1865.

;;,5-4,oi2

,015,
476,
354,
1 10,

327.
224,
161,

174,
423,
254,

494
363
930
833

809
180

7-3

8o3

in
13 ^yeeks

ending

1st April,

1SC5.

53,io5

23,059

5 .cox

5.341
1,099

3.213
•-•5 79
1.453
J. 559
4,738
2,064

];eatlis

in

13 Weeks

ending

1st April,

IStiS.

,563

,018

.723
,019

772
,299
,738

,134
,317
,115
,173

Annnal Hate to '

1000 living during '

the 13 Weelcs ending

1st April, 1S65. ;,.

Births

38-59

37-35

42-14
36-92
39-80
39*34

46 '21
36-04
35-92
44-88
32-51

Deaths.

30-78
27-98

39-79
34-14
27-96
28-74
32-03
28-13

30-35
38-98

34-31

Second Quarter.

Cities, &c.

Total of 10 large to -ivns ..

London

Liverpool ^Borough)

Manchester (City)

Salford (Borough)

Birmingham (Borough) ..

Leeds (Borough)

Bristol (City)

Edinburgh (City)

Glasgow (City)

Dublin (City and some suburbs)

i Kstimated
I Population
' in the Middle
I of the Year
[ 1S65.

Births

iu

13 Week!

ending

1st July,

1SC5.

Deaths

iu

13 Weeks

ending

1st July,

ISliS.

5,586,870 I 51,550

6,4c8

4,953
3.205
1,082
3,195
2,510
1,379
1,646
4,860

,Cls ,404
476,363
354,930
110,833
327,842
224,025
161 ,809
174,180

423.723
317,666

34,653

17,367

3,709

2,592

697

1,651

1,515

869

1,148

3,236

1.874

Annual Rate to

lUOO living dnring

the 13 Weeks ending

1st July, 18C5.

iiirlhs. Deaths.

37-03

35-15
41-73
36-24
39-18
39-12

44-97
34-21

37-93
46-04
29-21

24-90

23- 16

31-25
29-31
25-24

20*21

27-14
21-56

26-45
30.65

21-68

NoTF.. — It will be observed that (he above Tables tliow the rates to icoo living. For rates per
cent., remove the decimal point ouf place to the left. In the second quarter the raie of mortality in
districts comprising the chief towns was 2'iJ9 per cent.

In districts consisting of small towns and country parishes it was 2'0|9 per cent.

In the town districts of Scotland it was in the same quarter 2'6i per cent.

In the rural districts of Scotland i-68 per cent.

The mort^ility of the aggregate population of Scotland was 2-17 .".g.iinst 2-22 in Kngland. ' ,.J

( XII )

METEOROLOGY.

January began with cold frosty weather ; a warm time set in on
the 4th day and continued till the IGth, during which period,
though the weather was mild, the sky was cloudy, and the wind
blowing a gale. From the 17th January to the end of the quarter,
with the exception of short intervals at the beginning and end of
February, the weather was cold for the season, sometimes to an
unpleasant degree. In a cold period in January the temperature of
the air was as low as 20° at many places ; in February from 13° to
20° in many places, and as low as 8° at Birmingham ; and in March
at the equinox it was as low as 23°. In January and February
snowstorms were frequent, and extended all over England and
Scotland. At the end of February the weather was extremely wild
and stormy; and March was cold and ungcnial throughout. The
mean temperature of January at Greenwich was 36-3° ; that of
February and also that of March 80-6°, each being below the average
of the corresponding periods in twenty-four years, and the mean
temperature of March being as much as 5"4° below the average-
Usually Februar}^ is 2° and I\Iarch 5° warmer than January ; but
this year the increase was not obtained. To find a March equally
cold, it is necessary to go back to 1845, 1837, and 1814, when the
mean temperature was above 3o° and below 3G°. In 1785 it was
33 "9°. Towards the end of last century that month was oftener
remarkable for extreme coldness than it has been in later times.

The unusually severe weather of !March interrupted agricultural
operations and checked vegetation ; on 5th April this wintiy weather
ceased suddenly ; and till 1 0th June, during a period of sixty-seven
days, the temperature was, with few exceptions, above the average,
the average daily excess being nearly 5°; and the quarter was
closed by a period of twenty days in which intervals of cold and
warm weather succeeded each other, but with a predominance of
cold. The high summer temperature of April urged vegetation to
rapid growth, and soon efiaced the traces of a backward season.
Eain, which had been much needed, fell early in May, and in the
second week of that month over the whole of the British islands.
The mean temperature was above the average in each month,
remarkably above it in April and Ma}^ The mean temperature of
the quarter was 56*2 at Greenwich ; and there is no record of any
previous instance in which it was so high in the same period of the
year. There was 7*2 in. of rain. The fall Avas deficient in April ;
above the average in May and June. The air was unusually dry;
for though there was a great deal of rain in May, it fell in showers
which were heavy, but of short duration.

( XIII )

;:;

•-

g, <

S = vj

r^

u^

rA

^

tc

o

1

b

1

b

1

b

1

&

b

+

b
+

b
I

b
+

o "1

— r3 •

-J .Ei.

"to .S

C

t

to

^

n

o

M

to

o

rt-

i-i

? O

«

""

So-i

u^

„

o

r^

O

vO

VD

o

5 o S
t top

»-«

•<*•

rrs

O

ID

c

o

o

o

O

e

O

o

p

o

Ic Foro
'apour.

1

'l

1

1

+

+

I

+

"5 r^

rf —

n

oo

U4

o

ON

oo

ON

vO

00

w'

c"

CO

CO

1^

oo

r*

vO

''^

C/

M

»-1

rl

'^

r^

rA

S

*

'

■

^ CJ o

o

o

o

o

vr^

CO

^J^

r/^

^^1

o

o

r^

c^

CO

o

r*

o

>J^

C**

•^^

r--i

r^f\

r^

<r\

■J-v

vCi

k-r\

S,

Ho .<;

o

^

OO

'-n

■O

-i-

o

r^

60

pot

2

i: tfjg

o

b

i-i

M

^

o

O

^

1-A

'■'^i

«

fti tf

1

1

1

1

+

+

+

+

>.

£S«

1

a

M

O

c^

t-

oo

vO

r-~

^

I

C3

o

a»

o

n

b

o

^

t.

r^

f'y

<

«

"■

"

r«

rt

M

So »

i_^

^

n

f^ .

oo

^

*'^

:o

o i> b

*

•

m

^

<i; to ^

o

r»

IS

o

r^

o

'■'^

•-i

o

M

C

is i ^

1

1

1

1

+

+

1

+

C S"

o

O

o

o

O

CO

o

O

uri

b

r^

S

r^

rA

r^

rn

'i-

^

'«•

2

1

go M

o

•>!-

M

n

r^

trs

'i-

>j-i

d

o a, >-
J5 tp§

r)

>J^

ro .

o

'•^

;:,

b

M

S
1

Pi a"

o

1

1

1

1

+

+

+

1

«

a

o

'^

vr>

r^

n

r^

o

o

;S

a

o

»-r\

M-

V

V

o

03

I_

VA

*-i

s

fr\

rA

rA

ra

'J-

^j^

»J^

■J-.

£"5^

O

M

■^

„

1^

(s

M

'^

? « b

!5 5^!r

t-i

M

vr\

'^

o

>-A

<A

M

r^

o

1

1

1

1

+

+

+

+

(5 S o)

So m

^

r^

^

o

tr,

vO

M

M

c

p o i-

<

i; tog

o

b

M

V

M

o

o

f*^

M

^

t: o '^

+

1

1

1

+

+

+

+

■^ . -14

C 5«

c

'^

o

o

w^

<^

M

(^

r.

o

o

vC

o

o

S

r^

rA

r^

r^

>-rt

w^

\o

»^\

lA

u5

a

H

>^

£•

•

fl

•

•

a

00

§

C3

^
U

S

S

_J

'

rt

o

>-^

<^

'u

&,
<

>1

<;

( XIV )

o

C5

M

■^ to

1

^

o

»-->

n

^

O

M

^

o

s

O

o

^

■;-^

0^

To

r"t

o

M

;^

CT>

•a

ON

p

£^ «

■*-

m

r-^

H

^

^J%

»j-\

»-n

w

»^N

r4l

CbO

o

S5 s

►-I

ri\

S

'-'

OO

ro

M

s

m

3

g'§a.=P

3;S -5

o

r^

ij^

b

£;

rn

o

o

O

f"\

e:

O

M

M

l-t

3

H

TA

o

"

a

„

o

a

.a

s

^-j

:^^

-

o

O

3

03

-

h-l

r^

s

O

WN

■3

s

S 0-

60

C

1

bO

(Ml

■o

CN

s

3

M

1-1

CO

a

CO

IN-1

J

o

o §

(4

1

° So*

tT

■+

M

a

O

r<

j_,

o

S

M

iS

<%^

t/j

u^

*

S c ^

>.1 s^

rA

l-l

M

O

c

^

m

CN

M

M

a

l~^

— g a 2

^

1^^

M

rt

CO

^

^O

l~t

OO

C3

OO

;:^

r^

m

(S

^

v-\

^

M

n

n

■ '^

M

cj s3

f=i

r^

P5

.^

K So

d

b

b

a

3

CO

a

t-t

r

b

a

3
CO

'^

c

JJL

+

+

1

+

1

+

+

+

1

^

2

ro

c>

o

S

M

^

-*

"i-

a

<s

3

.5

r--,

l-l

b

3

03

o

3

b

^

"

3

f^

1 <

M

1 = 2

^

* tog
fa" * '^

e

^

•^

W-,

M

E

H

CO

m

t\

tb

1

+

+

+

bo

1

1

+

1

^1

c

O

■^

»J-\

r^\

M

M-

"i-

r^

03

t^

»^'-^

^-^

fc^

w^

^

^

rv-\

m

rn

o

h^

to

w-i

*n

»/^

»J^

tri

»r\

k^

>J->

«

>i=i

— t4-.

a O M

O

OO

r/^

VO

D

r^

O QJ t-

O

CO

vO

ON

o

■*

•^

tc|

CI tog

c'

b

o

O

b
b

b

^C

b

o
b

o

b

^i

C gf'

1

1

1

1

+

1

+

+

n g

KM

vr\

ri

o

VO

^

CO

ON

r^

d

o

M

M

<o

r<

i-i

"o

OS

c

^

t^

r^

o

c

o

r>-

O

ON

1^^

o>

O

o

CN

c>

o>

o

ON

<s

o*

d

D

<N

r<

r*N

"

S o ,i

O a, t-

4: tog

H

r<

O

o

VO

^

^^

»JN

11

+

1

1

1

i

1

c

O

C>

T^f^

r4

t^

f^\

r^-v

O

n

h^

CO

OO

CO

CO

l~^

("^

l^

tt"^

rt

1 J

►-5

o

1^

1=1

til

l-H

•<"

g

■"■""

1

( XV )

WHEAT, BAELEY, AXD OATS : SALES, IMPOETS, &c.

Wheat was in flower on lOtli May at Cardington; on the 22nd
at Grantham ; and on the 23rd at Silloth ; on IJJth June at Oxford ;
and on the 21st at Guernsey.

Wheat was in ear on 27th i\Iay at Ilurstpicrpoint ; on the 7th at
Abington; on the. 1-1 th at Grantham; on the loth at Cockermouth
and Aspley; on the 17th at Silloth; on the 18th at Penketh and
Kingsley ; and on the 25th at Bywell.

Barley was in flower on 17th May at Cardington ; on 11th June
at Aspley.

Barley was in car on 19th ]May at Marlborough; on 5th Juno at
Cardington ; on 15th at Abington and Bywell ; on IGth at Grantham ;
on 17th at Aspley ; and on the 20th at Cockermouth.

Oats were in ear on 21st fJune at Penketh; and on the 27th at
Cockermouth.

Quantities of British Wheat Sold in the Towns from wlucli Returns are
received under the Act of the 27th and 28th Victoria, cap. 87; and their
Aver.vgp: Prices: in each of the first Six Months of the Yeara 1861-G5.

QuAxirnrs ix Quap.ters.

1861.

1863.

1863.

1864.

1865.

Four weeks, ending Jan. 28
Four weeks, ending Feb. 25
Five weeks, ending Apr. i
Four weeks, ending Apr. 29
Four weeks, ending May 27
Five weeks, ending July i

quarters.

262,527
197,236
253,620
201,551
214,432
220,608

quarters.
220,266
242,229
277,410

173,174
185,356
208 , 042

quarters.
262,923
239,882
281,405
243,552
267,587
302,897

quarters.
344,930
306,713

350,974
285,286
284,601
333,201

quarters.

300,816

298,271

373,069

7.61,501

327,694

283,523

Average Prices

PER QtJABTER.

1861.

186.8.

1863.

1864.

1865.

s.

d.

s. d.

s.

d.

s. d.

s. d.

Four weeks, ending Jan. 28

?7

6r 4

47

5

40 7

38 6

Four weeks, ending Feb. 25

54

4

60

47

3

40 8

38 3

Five weeks, ending Apr. i

54

>

59 3

45

8

40 I

38 6

Four weeks, ending Apr. 29

5'>

5

58

45

7

40

39 8

Four weeks, ending May 27

55

58

46

4

39 2

41

Five weeks, ending July i

53

5

54 7

40

8

39 «

41 5

Average Prices per Quarter of Wiii:at, Parley and Oats in the First and
Second Quarters of 1865.

Barley.

■Wheat.
d.

First quarter 3^ 5

Second quarter .. ,. 40 9

d.
2B 9
29 o

Oats.

19 ir

( XVI )

Quantities of Wheat, Wheatmeal jind Flour, Barley and Oats,
Imported into the United Kingdom in cacli of the first Six Months.

1865.

^Vbeat. l^^-ttf ^-^^y

Oats.

First Quarter.

Four -weeks, ending Jan. 28
Four weeks, ending Feb. 25
Five weeks, ending Apr. i ..

Second Quarter.

Four weeks, ending Apr. 29
Four weeks, ending May 27
Five weeks, ending July i ..

cwts.
517.75'^
539,5f>o

874,187

616,883

2,506,790
2,469,187

cwts.

165,270

258,166
281,094

278,403

277,701
305,424

cwts.
480,450

544,360

765.758

500,899

1,144,939

754,494

cwts.
300,322
235,500
229,064

527.324
901,305

879,473

Total in twenty-six weeks . .

7,524,363*, 1,566,058*, 4,190,900

3,072,988

The average weekly importation of wheat was in the first quarter 148,5 77 cwts. ;
in the second quarter it was 430,220 cwts.

Importations of Wheat for Six Months ended June 30 : Amounts and

I'roportions sent by diH'erent States.

1863.

Cwts.
Total importation 10,788,059

From

Russia

Prussia

Denniaik

Schleswig

Mecklenburg

Hanse Towns

France

Turkey and Wallachia and Moldavia

Egypt

United States

]?ritish North America

Other countries

Per Cent.
14

2

15

35

1864.

Cwts.
10,047, 102
I'cr Cent.
12
23
4
I5
3

3i
4*
2i

4
38
il

2i

1865.

Cwts.

,462,268"
Per Cent.

36

30

3

4
3

6
5

3

oi

Flour.

Total importation ..

From

Hanse Towns

France

United States

British Noith America

Other countries ..

1863.

1864.

1865.

Cwts.

Cwts.

Cwls.

425,255

2,774.751

1,562,375*'

Por Cent.

Per Cent.

Percent.

7

6

8

27

.. 48

79

57

..40

7

6

4

r

3

2

5 .

* The totals in the two Tables slightly differ. One embraces a period of 182
days; the other, 181 days. The odd bushels in the weekly returns of wheat sold
arc not included in the summary.

( XVII )

Imports of Animals aud certain Animal aud Vegetable Sccstances in the
Six Months ending 30th June, 18G3-4-5.

1863.

1864.

1865.

Oxen, Bulls, Cows No.

Calves , ,

Sheep and Ijambs , ,

Swine and Hogs ,,

Bacon and Hams cwts.

Salt Beef ,

Salt Pork ,,

Butter , ,

Cheese

Eggs No.

Lard cwts.

Potatoes , ,

Indian Corn or Maize . . . . , ,

Peas , ,

Beans , ,

Kice (not in husk) ,,

Hops , ,

Flax and Tow ,,

Wool* lbs.

Kaw Cotton cwts.

Oilseed Cakes tons

Guano , ,

Bones (burnt or not burnt ;|
animal charcoal) ,. .. / "

24,108

11,147

110,636

982

1,303,199

187,505

115,661

366,341

199,016

143,300,640

318,818

837,150

5.175,163

635,404

1,001,456

792,849

66,742

466,564

70,684,679

2,134,230

38.173

127,007

47,966
15,928

129.350

18,802

815,965

224,187
134,134

409 , 203

234.176

:72,458,ooo

101,616

235,334

1,063,916

598,169

481,208

571.678

59>5i4

878,674

69,935.204

3,546,968

36,914

48,628

30,715

74.392

18,785
250,212

38,706
403,449
131,471

95.560

455.752

240,503

195,218,160

76,000
411,789
2,076,918
218,068
436,033
299,090

38,031

439,656

87,470,008

3,108,853

40,971
106,243

23.505

'■' Not including alpaca wool.

PRICE OF PEOVISIOKS.

First Quarter. — The price of wlieat, 38s. id. per quarter, was less
by 26'. tlum in the first three months of 18G4, and less by 8s. od. than
in the same period of 18(33. Both beef and mutton were dear. The
average price of the best potatoes at the Waterside Market, South-
"wark, was 9 Is. per ton. In the March quarter of 18G3 it was 125s. ;
in that of 18G4 it was 62s. Od.

Second Quarter. — The average price of wheat was 40s. Gd. per
quarter ; a shilling higher than it was in the June quarter of last
year, but Gs. less than it was in the same period of 1863. Beef by
the carcase at Xewgate and Leadenhall Markets was on an average
bid. per lb., and was a halfpenny dearer than in the two previous
June quarters. Mutton was 7jr/. per lb. ; it was lid. dearer than
in the same period of 18G4, and nearly 2d. dearer than in that of
1863. The average price of best potatoes at the Waterside Market,
Southwark, was 102s. Gd. per ton, being about double the price of
the June quarter of 1864, but less than that of 18G3.

VOL. r. — s. ,s. A 3

( XVIII )

The AVEBAGE Pkices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, aiul of rotaiocw ; aIt>o tlie-
AVERAGE Number of Paupers relieved on the luKt dny cf each Week ; and
tlie ?iIean TE;irERA.TURE ; in each of the Nine Quarters ending June 30th, 1S65.

AviCnAGK PRICEt-.

PAri'Fnrs5r.

Quarters
ending

Consols

(for
Money).

AVheat

per
Quarter

ill
Englund
and .
Wales.

Meat per lb. at Tyeadenhall

and Newgate Wavketa

(by the Carcase).

Best
Potatoes
per Ton

at Waterside
Market,

Soulhwark.

Quarterly Average of the
Number uf I'aupcrs re-
lieved on the /(!>< day of
each week.

Mean
Tempe-
rature.

Beef. 1 Mutton.

In-door.

Out-door.

1863

£.

s. d.

1

June 30

93^

46 2

A\d.—bld. Ald.-bld.
Mean 5 \d. Mean ^^d.

lies. — 1 3 OS.
Mean 1 20s.

127,852

879,241

53-0

Sept. 30

93

45 7

Ald.—b\d.
Mean ^\d.

A\d.—bld.
Mean 5|J.

70s. — 105 s.
Mean 8-s. bd.

120,189

819,795

58-8

Dec. 31

1864

9^4

40 6

Ad.—b\d.
Mean <^\d.

^d.-id.
Mean bd.

bos. — 80s.
Mean yes.

130,072

804,941

46-8

Mar. 31

91

40 4

Ald.—b\d.
Mean 5^^.

Sid.-7d.
Mean 6|rf.

55s.— 70s.
Mean 62s. bd.

i39,r)0G

855.728

37-9

June 30

91^

39 7

A\d.-b\d.
Mean 5|rf.

Mean 6i«/.

40s.— 6 OS.
Mean 50s,

1-2,717

785,825

53-1

Sept. 30

89^

42 3

AU.-bld.
Mean 5Jc/.

bid.- Id.
Mean 6j(/.

80s. — 1 20s.
Mean loos.

115,698

739,341

59'4

Dec. 31

1865

89i

38 5

4^.-7^.
Mean 5f</.

5i'/.-7i^.
Mean 6^t/.

80s. — 95 s.
Mean 87s. bd.

128,322

771,879

43 • 7

Mar. 31

89i

38 4

A\d.~id.
Mean 5 ft/.

bid.-iid.
Mean 65;/.

85 s.— 97s.
Mean 91s.

142,329

813,371

36-5

June 30

90«

40 6

Mean 5^^.

6irf.— 8|rf.
Mean ild.

90s. — 115s.
Mean 102s. 6c?.

125,846

776,016

56-2

PAUPERISM.

The average numloer of paupers relieved in door on the hist day
of each week in April, May, and June, was 125,846, which is rather
more than in the spring of last year, less than in that of 18G3;
the number relieved out-door was 770,016, exhibiting a small
decrease on the pauperism of 1864, and a very great decrease on that
of the same quarter in the previous year, when the number of
persons who received relief was gi-eater than in the present year by
100,000.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAO.

I. — The Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

In the useful and masterly survey of the progress of agriculture,
in a late number of our Journal, written in continuation of
a similar review taken by the late Mr. Pusey at an earlier date,
Mr. Thompson observes : — " The commencement of the Society
took place during one of those recovering fits of associative
activity to which Englishmen are periodically prone." He then
explains that the Yorkshire Society was formed in 1837 ; the
Royal Agricultural Society in 1838 ; and the Royal Irish
Improvement in 1841. To these we venture to add the Royal
Agricultural College at Cirencester, organized in 1842, and
incorporated by charter in 1845. The Council of the Royal
Agricultural Society having recently appointed a committee to
consider and report on the actual state of agricultural education,
we propose to give a brief history of this Institution.

Only the elder members of our Society who are familiar with
the state of the agriculture in England some thirty years ago, are
able thoroughly to appreciate the progress and the improvement
which have taken place in the interval. — We speak of the
general condition of the kingdom, without ignoring that there
existed at that day many skilful and successful cultivators of
the soil and breeders of stock — men in advance of their age. —
But others who bear in mind the success of the annual meetings
of our Society, which, visiting every district of the kingdom,
has exhibited to a class of men not generally given to migrate
far from home, the best stock of every description, with a
wonderful display of implements — demonstrations far more in-
fluential on the minds of farmers generally than any descriptions
in print — and who further duly estimate the worth of the inves-
tigations and experiments of our agricultural chemists, and other
scientific men recorded in the Society's Journal — will readily
concede that the signs of prcjgress are manifest, and that these
are in great measure attributable to the exertions and influence
of this Society.

VOL. XXVI. B

2 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester,

The Council has, nevertheless, been recently reminded that
it has hitherto neglected one important duty of those enumerated
in our charter, namely, " to take measures for the improvement
of the education of those who depend on the cultivation of the
soil for their support."

While in connection with nearly all other arts, educational
training appears to have become more or less systematised, we
are not aware of the existence of any institution in England
especially devoted to the instruction of those who require that
knowledge and experience which improved agriculture calls for,
with one exception.

It is remarkable that while public schools of agriculture
exist in nearly every other country of Europe, the only institution
of the kind in England, viz., the Agricultural College of Ciren-
cester, should have originated in a small local farmer's club.

A brief history, then, of the origin, progress, and actual state
of this establishment may be acceptable to the readers of this
Journal.

This College originated in an address made by the late Mr.
Robert Jeffries Brown to a meeting of the Cirencester and Fair-
ford Farmers' Club, held in November, 1842, " On the Advan-
tages of a Specific Education for Agricultural Pursuits."

At a subsequent meeting of the Club, held on the 29th De-
cember, 1842, at which Mr. Edward Bowly, a member of the
present Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, presided, a
public address was agreed on, from which the following are
extracts : —

" We, constituting the Cirencester and Fairford Fai'mers' Club, having fully
discussed and maturely considered the subject brought before us by Mr. E. J.
Brown, feel that we cannot too highly estimate the importance of a specific
education for those engaged in agricultural pursuits ; and the great value to
them of a knowledge of those sciences that are in constant operation in the
cultivation of the soil, the growth of crops, and the rearing and feeding of
domestic animals ; and we think it most essential that the study of these
sciences should be united with practical experience. The advantages of an
institution of this kind to the landowner, as well as to the occupier, are too
obvious to require comment ; and we confidently rely on their cordial co-opera-
tion and support."

A deputation, appointed by the Club, having obtained the
patronage of Earl Bathurst and other noblemen, and the principal
gentlemen in the neighbourhood, attended meetings convened for
the purpose at various market towns, in order to procure the sup-
port of the tenantry. The late Mr. R. J. Brown devoted nearly the
whole of the following year to the task of explaining the object
iu view to landowners and occupiers in various parts of the
kingdom, with considerable success. A public meeting was held
in Cirencester, under the presidency of Earl Bathurst, in April,

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 3

1844, at which it was resolved, on the motion of the late Earl
Ducie, seconded by Mi*. Kearsey, a tenant-farmer, " That it is
expedient to provide an institution in which the rising generation
of farmers may receive instruction at a moderate expense, in
those sciences, a knowledge of which is essential to successful
cultivation ; and that a farm form part of such institution." A
committee was then formed to determine on a plan for such an
institution, and on the best means of carrying it into effect.

A further meeting was held on the 1st July, 1844, at which it
was reported that Lord Bathurst had offered a farm of upwards
of 400 acres for a long term of years, and adjacent to it a site for
the erection of the College, with some pasture-land, on a lease
for ninety-nine years. The Society was then definitely formed ;
a president, vice-president, and trustees were appointed, and it
was resolved that a Charter of Incorporation should be applied
for.

The annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England was about to be held at Southampton in the course of
that month, and a deputation, consisting of Earl Ducie, Mr.
Holland, Dr. Daubeny, Mr. Edward Bowly, and several tenant-
farmers was appointed to attend the meeting at Southampton,
with the view of obtaining the sanction of the Council for a
public meeting, which it was proposed to hold under the
patronage of the Society, while agriculturists from all parts of
the kingdom were assembled. This sanction, however, not
having been given, the deputation ultimately resolved to hold an
independent meeting. The late Mr. Pusey presided, and it
was attended by the late Duke of Richmond, Earl Spencer,
Dr. Buckland, Mr. Sotheron Estcourt, Dr. Lyon Playfair, and
many others distinguished by their scientific and practical
knowledge of agriculture. The views of the promoters of the
College having been explained, resolutions were proposed and
carried, to the effect that the institution was deserving of public
encouragement and support.

By the persevering efforts of Mr. Brown and others, amongst
the nobility and landowners in various parts of the kingdom,
a subscription of 12,000/. was raised, the full amount of the
capital required according to the original proposal.

A charter was obtained in March, 1845, incorporating the
governors, proprietors, and donors, under the title of the " Agri-
cultural College for teaching the science of Agriculture and the
various sciences connected therewith, and the practical applica-
tion thereof to the cultivation of the soil, and the rearing and
management of stock."

This sum of 12,000/., however, was soon found to be inade-
quate to the completion of the projected College, iiTespective of

B 2

4 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

adequate farm-buildings, and other essential adjuncts. It was
therefore provided by the Deed of Settlement, that the capital
should be increased to 24,000/. ; but after every exertion it was
found impracticable to extend the subscriptions and donations
beyond the amount of 20,320/. The expression of opinion in
favour of an institution of this kind was so strong and general
as to render the earlier administrators of its funds somewhat
over-sanguine as to success. This led to a premature extension
of the College by the immediate erection of some buildings,
which it had been originally intended to leave till time should
show what amount of accommodation was necessary. The day of
reckoning, when it arrived, presented a result in conformity with
general experience in such cases — the buildings, with all the
incidents essential to the actual occupation, had involved an
outlay considerably beyond the estimates.

There having existed no precedent in this country as a guide
to the Committee of Management, mistakes of one kind and
another were unavoidable, and admitted of correction only in
the expensive school of experience. The providing of com-
petent professors and of the domestic staff for such an institution
involved an immediate annual outlay, while an adequate income
from students was only prospective. The fee first fixed for the
board and instruction of students was 30/. per annum only : a
sum which about met the demands caused by the keen appetites
of youngsters spending the greater part of the day in the in-
vigorating air of the Cotswolds, leaving the interest on capital,
and the cost of professors, &:c., unprovided for. In the year
1848, the account at the bankers was found to be overdrawn to
the extent of 10,000/. A meeting of the promoters of the
College was convened to consider its financial condition. There
appeared to be no alternative but the closing the Institution at
the end of the actual session, for want of adequate support.
Before that resolution was finally passed, Mr. Holland, who was
in attendance as vice-president, expressed his strong and un-
altered opinion of the necessity of such a school of agriculture,
and his confidence in its ultimate success, adding that he would
take on himself the responsibility for the existing debt. The
meeting was then adjourned for further deliberation. At the
adjourned meeting, the late Earl Ducie, attended, and not only
supported Mr. Holland's views, but, with his characteristic
liberality, stated that much more would be requisite than a mere
provision against the existing debt, and that there ought to be at
least an equal amount in the banker's hands to meet further outlay,
without which the establishment would be too imperfect to com-
mand success. His Lordship added that he could not allow the
burden to rest on Mr. Holland's shoulders alone ; and ultimately

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 5

the support of the institution, with all its liabilities, actual and
prospective, was undertaken jointly by himself, Earl Bathurst,
Mr. Sotheron Estcourt, and the late Mr. Lans^ston, in con-
nection with Mr. Holland. Upwards of 30,000/. were thus
added to the orig-inal subscriptions and donations, on the per-
sonal security of those gentlemen.

Under these circumstances, a general meeting of the original
subscribers and donors was convened in London, to consider and
determine on the future management of the institution. It became
necessary to apply for a supplemental charter, in order to vest the
management of the College in those gentlemen during the con-
tinuance of their liabilities, and to give them such security for
their advances as the very limited means of the institution
admitted of. This further charter was granted in July, 1849,
whcreljy the corporation was empowered to obtain in the usual
mode an additional capital of 20,000?. (making in all. 44,000/.),
with power in the meantime to raise funds to that amount
by a mortgage of the property and effects of the College. The
guarantors were thereby also appointed a committee to manage
the affairs of the College as the ordinary council of the College
had been authorized to do by the original charter.

The Buildings.

Of these the principal is the College itself, erected in an
elevated and healthy spot facing Lord Bathurst's beautiful park,
to which the students have access, while the south front com-
mands extensive views over Wiltshire. Within the walls accom-
modation is provided for the residence of eighty-five students :
there is a commodious dining-hall ; a museum of the same
dimensions, rich in specimens illustrative of the lectures on
veterinary surgery and practice, geology, mineralogy, and botany ;
and a theatre for the delivery of lectures. Various alterations in,
and additions to the College in the shape of private studies, &c.,
have been made, for the accommodation of a class of students
resorting to the College willing to engage them.

Contiguous to the College, but in a distinct building, has been
formed, out of an old barn, one of the best laljoratories in
England. A portion of this has been fitted up with all requisite
stoves and other appliances for the special use of the Chemical
Professor and his assistants ; the remainder is adapted for the
use of students. In the former division, our late Piofessors,
Mr. Way and Dr. Voclcker, have performed a large proportion
of those analyses which have enriched the pages of nearly every
number of this Journal.

A chapel has of late been erected at the back of the College,
affording ample accommodation for the students, and the entire

6 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

establishment of the College, in which morning' and evening
prayers are read daily by the Principal, besides the usual services
on Sundays. The inore ornamental portions of the chapel have
been executed by private subscription.

The farm-buildings are on a large scale, and stand about a
quarter of a mile from the College. Adjoining a well-arranged
rickyard is an ample barn, with granary, a fixed steam-engine,
thrashing, chaff-cutting, grinding, and other machinery attached ;
and at one end of this pile of building is the dwelling-house of
the farm manager. At the other end are the implement and cart
sheds. To the east are the carpenters' and smiths' shops, slaughter-
house, and weighing-machine for cattle. The next row of build-
ings is devoted to the stables, harness-house, «Scc., with piggeries
on the west side ; and a third comprises a double row of cattle-
boxes, on the west of which are two yards for store cattle, sur-
rounded by covered sheds.

Adjoining the turnpike-road from Oxford to Bath, which
intersects the farm, is a Veterinary Hospital, under the manage-
ment of the Veterinary Professor, fitted up for the reception of
all animals requiring operations, or treatment for disease, acci-
dent, or other ailments. The public are invited to send animals
so circumstanced, which are treated at a moderate charge, in
order that the Students may have the advantage of ocular
demonstration of disease and its treatment, by the Professor in
aid of his lectures in the theatre.

In the cultivation of the farm are employed Mr. Fowler's
steam-engine, plough and cultiA^ator attached, besides an assort-
ment of all the most improved implements.

The permanent establishment of the College, under the general
superintendence of the Council, consists of the Principal, a Cler-
gyman of the Church of England ; the Farm Manager and
Demonstrator ; the Chemical Professor and his assistant ; and
Professors of Botany, Veterinary Surgery, Mathematics, and Sur-
veying, all resident ; and a Drawing Master. Gentlemen dis-
tinguished for their ability in the respective sciences connected
with agriculture are secured to give occasional courses of Lec-
tures, in addition to those of the resident staff.*

There are four Sessions in the year, in each of which a com-
plete course of lectures is given in each department of science
taught at the College. The programme for each week comprises
instruction in practical agriculture, on the farm daily, commencing
6*30 A.M. Lectures are distributed over the remainder of the

* Among these the names of Dr. Anderson, Professor Gamgee, Mr. Bailey
Denton, Mr. J. C. Morton, Mr. T. Duckham, Mr. J. T. Davy, Mr. R. S. Burn, Mr.
Hewitt Davis, Mr. Thornhill Harris, Mr. Algernon Clarke, Mr. Baldwin, and Pro-
fessor Morris, may be mentioned.

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 7

day, excepting Saturday, on the following^ subjects : — Cliemistry,
applied, or2:anic and inor<2:anic ; l)otany ; veterinary surgery,
anatomy, and pathology ; therapeutics ; mechanics, mensuration,
surveying, and drawing to those who desire such instruction.

Such is an outline ol this Institution and its establishment,
provided by the disinterested contributions and munificent sup-
plemental support we have described, for the advantage of the
rising generations of agriculturists, at a cost exceeding 50,000/.

To say one word on Professors. The Council in early days
fortunately enlisted in the cause of agriculture the services of
Professor Way, though these were lost to the College on his
promotion to the post of Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, and subsequently were transferred to more
advantageous employment for the public at large. His successor
Dr. Voelcker until very recently held the two appointments con-
jointly, with mutual advantage to each Society. The Council
have since been fortunate enough to engage the services of Mr.
Church, a gentleman of considerable eminence as a chemist, who
is now resident at the College.

Happih", both the late Mr. Haygarth and his successor, the
present Principal, had eminently qualified themselves for this
post, by cultivating a natural taste for general science to an extent
unusual in members of their profession. Mr. Constable not only
fulfills with zeal and energy the duties which strictly belong to
his appointment, but is competent and anxious to assist students
in the general course of their studies, especially those connected
with practical agriculture. In furtherance of this object, he has
lately prepared and published an excellent Manual, entitled ' A
Guide to the College-Farm and Cultivation-Book, for the use of
Students.'

There is no greater mistake than the too prevalent notion that
any member of a family who has not sufficient capacity for more
intellectual avocations may, with very little previous instruction,
become a successful agriculturist ; and that whilst most handi-
crafts require a seven years' apprenticeship, residence with a
farmer or at this College for a year or two is an all-sufficieut
preparation for undertaking a farm. Our own observation would
lead us to recommend any youth resolving on agriculture as his
occupation in life to place himself with a tenant-farmer for a
year, to acquire what may be called the Grammar of Agricul-
ture ; with this preparation he would be in a position to derive
greater advantage from a two years' course of instruction at the
College ; after this, two years' residence with a skilful farmer,
with careful daily observation and the study of the most approved
agricultural literature, would form a reasonably safe foundation
to work upon.

8 Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester.

As evidence of the value of the system of training pursued in
the Collegfe, we venture to make a few extracts from the con-
eluding observations of a course of lectures delivered by Mr.
Robert Russell, the Editor of the ' Highland Society's Journal *
and an examiner of candidates for the diploma of that Society,
which have already appeared in print. Mr. Russell observed t©
the students : —

" 1 trust you will accept this imperfect sketch of the principles on which a
rotation of crops is founded, as a token of my good will towards the success of
this Institution. I am only sorry that my business prevents me from entering
more minutely into the subject. I am glad, however, that I have had the
opportunit}^ of visiting the College, and examining its workings. It is a great
privilege, I consider, that you enjoy in being educated where you can learn all
that literature or science has as yet done for the art of cultivation. The
greater ptart of the knowledge at present available can, I am persuaded, be
picked up here with less expenditure of time and labour than in any other
institution, where anything bearing upon agriculture must be taught in a very
indefinite way." ..." Having had the opportunity of seeing the character
and completeness of the education given at Cirencester, I confess that I have
envied the privileges of its recipients. As one of the Examiners for the High-
land Society's diploma, I, along with some of my coadjutors, have been struck
with the rare proficiency of some of our diploma holders who were educated
here. This fact so far satisfied me that this institution is effectually answering
the end its supporters have in- view. For my own part, I do not see any
reason why you should not yearly turn out diploma holders by the dozen^
instead of, as at present, in ones or twos ; nor why many more of you shoiild
not take the Higliland Society's diploma, were it to secure no other end than
to show your parents or guardians that a good use has been made of golden^
opportunities. There never was so great a thirst or desire for agricultural
knowledge as there is in the present day, and I do not know where it can be
satisfied as at this Institution. Any honorary distinction, which you have the
means of acquiring here, will certainly be looked upon as a good omen or
promise of your future success in life, as it will afford a strong presumption
that you will display the same diligence in business as you have done aS
College. ..." I am very glad, indeed, that I have snatched a little time
from business to visit this Institution. It has given me much pleasure to
observe the order and discipline which j^revails, and I have no doubt that, in
after years, this will form one of tiie most pleasant and profitable aspects
in which you will view your residence here. You have the best opportunity
of acquiring the most liberal education ; and from personal observation and
examination since I came here, I am glad to find so many students far advanced
in the knowledge of what relates to tlie Art of Agriculture."

Having received from Mr. Baldwin, the Professor of Agricul-
ture at the Glasnevin Institution, near Dublin, written answers
to an inquiry wuich we hastily addressed to him as he was about
to enter the train after the conclusion of a course of lectures
delivered to the students, we venture to make the following-
extracts. After stating the opportunities for daily personal inter-
course with the students and Professors afforded by a residence
for the delivery of two courses of Lectures in 1863 and 1864,
Mr. Baldwin writes : —

" My own habits of thought and action induced me to give the fullest

Royal Agricultural College of Cirencester. 9

consideration I was able to the intei'nal discipline and general arrangements
of the College. After fourteen years' experience of agricultural education
at Glasnevin, it was natural that the College arrangements should interest
me. I was anxious to study the system pursued here, not only for its own
sake, but for the purpose of assisting my judgment whenever my employers
should think fit to consult me regarding the Glasnevin establishment. Under
these circumstances, I have no hesitation in expressing my conviction of what
a student may do at the College. I say advisedly what a student inay do ;
because you can judge an institution of this kind fairly only by its attentive
and assiduous students. It is unfair to the Royal Agricultural College to
judge it bj' the careless and inattentive student. Every man of experience
knows there are some men whom you cannot by possibility induce 'to study.
So it must have been,' and so it must continue to be at Cirencester. But a
student who is bent on acquiring a thorough knowledge of his profession, who
is determined to use his best eftbrts to gain a good position amongst his brotlier
farmers, who has a laudable amount of ambition to excel, who, in short, is
anxious to use such' abilities as the Almighty has endowed him with for his
own advantage, could spend a couple of years at this College more profitably
than at any place of which I have any knowledge. Apart from the scientific
knowledge to be acquired at Cirencester, and the invigorating influence exerted
by its class-discipline on the mind, the students acquire thus a vast amount
of practical agricultural knowledge. I am unwilling to mention individual
students by name, as I might omit others of equal merit, but I may add that I
was invited to examine several for the College diploma in November last, I
examined them on the form for several weeks. I bad an opportunity of testing
their knowledge of farming acquired in the College class-rooms and on the fanii.
It is due to the College, and to those by whom they were instructed, to state
that I have never met with young men who, during the time, had acquired so
large a mass of scientific and practical agi'icultural knowledge. I do not believe
it possible that they could in the same time have stored their minds with the
same amount of knowledge of principles and practical details on the farm of
any private individual. In making this remark I have no desire to undervalue
the private farm as a school for practical instruction. Some of the students at
the College struck me as possessing a better knowledge of the theory and
practice of modern farming than any men of their age I ever met with. They
will never regret the time tliej^ spent at the College ; and the time will come
when students of their stamp will take their place in the current of agricul-
tural progix'ss, and be living witnesses of the value of a sound agricultural
education. "It only remains for me to express a hope that the College will
prosper, and fully realize the aspirations of its founders."

We have been Induced to add these influential testimonies to
the general efficiency of this Institution for the purposes of its
foundation, not as forming part of its history, but as being
highly creditable to the Principal and the regular staff of
Professors.

Charles Lawrence.

Cirencester, July 27th, 1864.

( 10 )

II. — On Breaking up Pastures. By C. Belchee.

Prize Essay.

In treating of breaking up of pasture and its subsequent
management as arable land I venture to offer my own ideas.
I do not presume to think that I shall be able to lay down
any new rules, or recommend any course that will be applicable
to every case that may arise. All that I can do is to state the
results of my experience and observation, with some informa-
tion which has been kindly given to me by friends engaged,
as I am, in farming. I shall also avoid the use of scientific
geological terms, in referring to the various soils I may have
occasion to mention, and merely describe them as they are
spoken of by farmers and their labourers, believing that state-
ments easily understood, and clearly given, and directions of a
plain and practical character, best accord with the object of this
Journal and the wishes of its Directors. Classing various soils
under three heads, viz., Heavy, Medium, and Light Land, I pro-
pose to describe in this order different modes of breaking up and
cropping, which I consider most advantageous in ordinary cases.
Peculiar circumstances sometimes exist which render ordinary
rules inapplicable : unless these receive special consideration the
promise of success will often result in loss and disappointment.

In all cases I shall presume that, as a preliminary, the land has
been well and wisely drained. Although some practical farmers
still hold that grass-land as such may possibly be injured by
draining, no such doubt applies to arable, except on the score of
excessive outlay.

Clay Land. — The first case we have to consider is the break-
ing up of grass on clay or stony loam. On such land the her-
bage is generally of a coarse character, with here and there tufts
and patches of rough grass which cattle will seldom eat, and
never thrive upon. Occasionally the turf is thin, and there is an
absence of the long coarse grass.

Towards the end of February the breast-plough should be set
vigorously to work on the turf, that the drying winds of March
may make it ready for the fire. Harrowing must precede the
burning ; twice over will generally suffice. Let the fires be
made at equal distances, and not very far apart. The burners
Avill, for their own convenience, generally attend to these points,
especially if the work is done, as it should be, by measure
and contract.* As soon as the heaps are charred through, let

* Breast-ploughing and burning usually costs from twenty to twenty-five
shillings per acre ; this price includes spreading the ashes.

Mreaking up Pastures. 11

the ashes be spread evenly on the land : if you wait until they
are cold, combustion will have gone too far, and the ashes will
not prove so beneficial as when a great portion of the vegetable
matter is merely charred. The black ashes are better than those
of a red colour. In burning, much depends upon good judgment
and management ; the fiies burn much inore slowly, and require
more attention, when the weather is damp ; but better ashes are
then made than in the dry windy weather that frequently prevails
in the month of March. As soon as the ashes are spread, horse-
plough them in with a very narrow and shallow furrow. It is
scarcely possible to plough the land too lightly ; for ashes have
always a tendency to work downwards, and it is desirable to
keep them as near to the top as possible. Another horse-ploughing
across the first furrows will sometimes be required, with harrow-
ing, rolling, and the usual operations for reducing the soil to a
fine tilth.

When the proper season for turnip-sowing arrives, begin by
drilling swedes, turnips, rape, or a mixture of rape and turnips :
either of these crops would be likely to succeed, especially with
an allowance of artificial manure. Part of the ashes made from
the burned turf should be reserved for drilling with the turnip-
crop, unless it has been determined to use the liquid-manure-
drill.

Sometimes newly-broken land does not get sufficiently pul-
verised to allow the drill to work freely at first. In such cases
it will be better to adopt the old-fashioned plan of sowing broad-
cast ; so that the small seeds may fall into the crevices, and be
covered by the use of a chain-harrow, or the common bush-
harrow ; the ground should finally be made firm with an iron
roller, Cambridge presser, or clod-crusher, and a good crop may
then be reasonably expected.

We now come to the consumption of the first root-crop ; and
I would strongly advise that this should be done with sheep as
early in the season as is practicable, especial care being taken
that the crop be equably consumed over every part of the
field. The first turnip-crop is frequently patchy, even where
great care and labour have been bestowed upon it : in one spot it
may be superabundant, while in another it has almost failed. In
such cases a little expense in carting roots to these Dare places
would be repaid twentyfold. This may appear like " robbing
Peter to pay Paul ;" but as the two will work together in part-
nership for the future, it is desirable that their powers should be
equalised. The addition of cake or corn to the food of the
sheep when on the turnips will, of course, increase the prospects
of an abundant corn-crop in the following season.

Before any horse-ploughing is commenced it will be advisable

12 Breaking up Pastures.

to determine in which direction the " lands " or furrows should
be, with a twofold object, — 1st, for convenience in ploughing,
so as to avoid crooked furrows and short turnings ; and, 2ndly,
for the ready escape of the surface-water. I am aware that the
mention of Avater running down furrows may be objected to by
some who think it possible in all cases to dispense with water-
furrows ; still, on some of the strong clays, although drained
effectually, surface-water will sometimes be seen ; as for instance
when a rapid thaw sets in, after a deep fall of snow on hard
frozen ground : therefore I would say, be on the safe side, and
prepare for an exceptional case, by making water-furrows, or
you may suffer loss and vexation when the rain is descending-
and the floods come.

In horse-ploughing for the first corn-crop experience teaches
us that the; furrows should be shallow ; the manure from the
sheep and the ashes from the burned turf will then be kept near
the surface. Oats are generally preferred for the first corn-crop
on newly-broken land ; wheat is occasionally grown ; but taking
the average of cases it is best to start with the oat. With the
oats sow a mixture of clover-seed and rye-grass, to be once
mown, then depastured with sheep, and ploughed in the autumn
for wheat ; or it may be a better course to let the clover and rye-
grass remain two seasons before ploughing for the second corn-
crop.

On breaking up some poor grass-fields (clay soils and sub-
soil) in the Vale of White Horse, in Berkshire, the following
plan was adopted : the turf was merely horse-ploughed and
planted with vetches, and an excellent crop was the result. After
the vetches had been eaten by sheep the land was again horse-
ploughed, and wheat was planted, which produced an abundant
crop ; then the land came into the regular farm-course. In an-
other field of similar quality the occupier adopted the plan of
breast-ploughing and burning ; oats were planted, then wheat
Avas tried, then swedes : yet all the crops for the first few
seasons were either partially or wholly lost, through the ravages
of wire-worms. This is the only case within my knowledge
Avhere horse-ploughing has proved better than breast-ploughing
for the coi:\^'ersion of clay-land pasture into arable ; and I mention
it as an exceptional instance.

Strong Loams and deep Stone-Brash. — Strong loams and deep
stone-brash lands may be classed together, because they should
have similar treatment, during the first few years of cropping as
arable.

As far as I have been able to ascertain, their treatment will
differ from that of clay-land only on these points : that barley
may sometimes be substituted for oats as the first corn-crop, and

Breaking up Pastures. 13

that wheat had better be taken after the seeds have stood for one
year. All new arable land lias a tendency to become hollow and
spongy ; and if the ground is loose, wire-worms, where these
abound, can more readily carry on their destructive operations.
Measures should, therefore, always be adopted to keep the soil
firm when under crop of any kind, I have omitted to mention
beans as a crop suitable to a clay soil, because on new land they
are an uncertain crop. When so planted they frequently look
well at the commencement of their giowth ; but as the summer
advances they become weak and sickly, the blossoms fall oft,
and at harvest, although there may be a fair c[uantity of haulm,
but very few corn-pods appear on the stalks; still beans* may
in some situations be advantageously substituted for clover after
the first corn-crop.

Chalk. — In this branch of my subject I shall have chiefly to
speak of those Down pastures that once exclusively occupied the
long ranges of our English chalk-hills, to which of late the opera-
tion of breaking up has been most extensively applied. Friends
who occupy large tracts of such soil concur with me in opinion
that here also the breast-plough and fire are the best agents that
can be used ; and that to adopt any other course is to invite
failure. One approved plan is the following : — Pare the turf as
thin as possible, burn it when sufficiently dry, and, when the
ashes are spread, " rafter "f the land with the horse-plough; in
the autumn " rafter " a^ain, across the first work, and plant
wheat as the first crop : a turnip-crop follows, and then the field
enters into the regular farm-culture. Some good cultivators,
after paring and burning in the same season, plant swedes or
rape and turnips, to be followed by wheat or oats. Where there
is a fair chance of success, the gain of a turnip-crop, with its
attendant benefits, is not to be neglected. But the judicious
farmer, like the skilful physician, must have regard to every
feature in the ])atient's case.

Gravel on Chalk. — 'Some of the chalk-hills, such as those in
the neighbourhood of Henley, in Oxfordshire, have a surface-soil
of gravel and flints. In breaking up such lands as these, both
the author and some of his acquaintance have taken the following

* It may not be generally known that o7/? beans nscd as seed frequently produce
a much better crop tlian m-w seed-beans. Tlie writer could mention many remark-
able instances of the kind, and is so fully impressed M-ith tlie advantage of planting
old beans, that he seldom uses any other except for experiment.

t Kaftering. — This is frequently done by taking off the "ground wrest" and
" tumfurrow " from an ordinary plough, and substituting a bit of wood (about
6 or 8 inches long, and 3 inches in depth) for the " turnfurrow." With the plough
so prepared, alternate strips between each furrow are left unploughed, and the
furrow slices are laid on tliis firm unmoved ground, so that only half the land is
actually moved; the work can also be done with an unaltered plough.

14 Breaking up Pastures.

course : — The ordinary horse-plough was followed by a " Land
Presser," which forced the grassy edge of the furrow-slice to the
bottom of the furrow, and at the same time made deep channels
and a firm bed for the seed-corn. This "presser" consists of
two heavy iron wheels, about one yard each in diameter, and a
light guide -wheel, all fixed into a frame connected with shafts.
One horse draws the presser after two plough-teams, and each
heavy wheel works between two furrow-slices ; the guide-wheel
runs on the unploughed ground about one yard from the furrow.
In the cases referred to, oats were sown for the first crop, and
they answered well. After the oats, it was invariably found that
the turf had decayed, and was reduced to vegetable mould, which
was easily pulverized by ordinary methods. These gravelly soils
on chalk appear to possess the property of causing vegetable
matter to decay in a short time, and, where such rapid decay
takes place, burning turf would be a wasteful process.

Sandy Soils.- — Sandy soils never make rich pasture-land, but
poor pasture on a deep sandy soil frequently makes profitable
arable-land when broken up, and in bringing such into cultiva-
tion the plough and presser may sometimes be used with advan-
tage. But here, again, the paring and burning process is the
safer course to adopt. If the land has not been burnt, a deeper
furrovv must be given than when ashes are ploughed in, other-
wise there will not be sufficient soil to pulverize for the covering
of the seed-corn, if corn be the first crop. But here, again, I
would advise that a turnip-crop be first grown, and consumed on
the land with sheep, and then there will be almost a certainty of
a good corn-crop. The treading of the sheep, apart from their
manure, is generally thought to be very beneficial on fresh-broken
land ; the fibrous turf-roots are parted and torn to pieces by the
feet of the sheep, so that they decay more rapidly, and become
food for succeeding crops.

Thin Stone-Brash. — On the poor pastures of a thin stone-brash
soil there is not sufficient mould to produce a thick turf; coarse
patches of the worthless carnation-grass are here frequently found,
the tough roots of which resist decay for a long period if ploughed
down ; therefore burning should be resorted to in breaking up
such land. When the paring and burning has been finished and
the ashes spread, a second breast-ploughing, to be followed by
harrowing to separate the tough fibres, will frequently be found
cheaper and better than horse-ploughing ; even if a third breast-
ploughing be given before the turnips are sown, the extra labour
and expense will be amply repaid by the abundance of the crop.
The barley which should follow this turnip-crop may either be
drilled after a shallow horse-ploughing, or it may be sown after
the sheep have been removed, and merely breast-ploughed in.

Breaking up Pastures. 15

There a mixture of seeds should always be the third crop taken, —
it is useless to expect a poor thin stone-brash soil to yield a large
or profitable return, unless it receive liberal treatment,

Featy Soils. — These lands never afford good pastures, and the
hay taken from them is always of a light and poor character ;
as their culture is not diflicult or expensive, the occupier has
always strong inducement to convert them into arable. Such
lands are never so easily, cheaply, or successfully brought hito
cultivation, as by paring and burning. Whilst gravelly soils
appear to hasten the decay of vegetable substances, peaty lands
seem to possess an opposite quality.

I once broke up a field of sixteen acres of well-drained peaty
land with a clay subsoil, the owner of which at that time held
the theory that burning vegetable matter of any kind was a
wasteful process, and that the fire destroyed much matter that
would be valuable if reduced to decay by natural decomposition.
The turf was therefore pared off, and drawn together into large
heaps ; then the land was dug about five inches deep during the
winter ; at spring there appeared to be an excellent seed-bed ;
oats were drilled in, but the ravages of the wire- worm com-
menced as soon as the oats were planted, and the kernels from a
large portion of the seed were eaten before they had time to
sprout. The few plants that survived were fed off on the field by
sheep ; the land was worked with ploughs and harrows during
autumn, and in the following spring oats were tried again ; and
again the crop was nearly destroyed by the wire-worms. Yet,
after a while, this field showed its productive powers by growing
very full crops. This case of failure may act as a warning to
those who may have occasion to convert peaty pasture-land to
arable. To such persons I would say, breast-plough and burn
for the first turnip-crop, and then horse-plough as shallow as
possible, and plant oats ; after the first oat-crop turnips or swedes ,
again (if a full crop, a portion of these roots may with advantage
be removed to other land or yards) ; then oats again, with clover
and rye-grass seeds ; then let the land take its regular course on
the farm, unless wheat should be considered hazardous, as it is
very liable to blight and mildew on such land. Perhaps for the
first few years no safer or more profitable plan could be adopted
than the following, which has stood the test of experience on land
such as that described : — 1. Turnips ; 2. Oats ; 3. Grass, to be
mown or fed, then (in the next year) breast-plough and burn for
turnips, and so on.

General Remarks. — It may be objected by some readers, that in
treating of the subject of the conversion of grass-land to arable, 1
have merely raised a cry of Fire ! fire ! It is true that I have
recommended burning as the safest, cheapest, and best mode, that

16 Brealiwg up Pastures.

can be adopted ; and I do so because experience, observation,
and extensive inquiry over a large district, confirm my opinion
on this point. Many persons have endeavoured to prove, and
perhaps have clearly show^n by experiment, that nearly all vege-
table matter loses some of its A'aluable properties when subjected
to fire, and that a greater amount of manure is produced by
gradual decay. Still, it must not be forgotten that by burning
turf, time is gained, and a strong stimulant is secured in the first
year for the fundamental crop of turnips, which, being forced to
early maturity and great bulk, will probably give back to the
land as manure a far greater amount of valuable matter than can
have been dissipated by the burning. Ashes also act mechanic-
ally, and on strong clay-soils cause an advantageous separation of
the earthy particles, and also make the soil more dry and healthy
for sheep Avhen folded thereon.

Let me suggest to clay-land farmers an inexpensive experi-
ment — that in breaking up pasture on a strong clay-soil they
should take the opportunity of clod-burning, as practised in some
parts of Worcestershire * with marked success. The dried
turf would, I believe, with the addition of a small quantity of
coal, provide sufficient fuel to burn very large quantities of clay,
and thus secure the benefit of a heavy dose of burned soil, with
comparatively slight increase of cost.

I will now endeavour to meet the objections that I anticipate
Avill be raised against my proposals for cropping newly-broken
land.

It may be said that new land will yield many corQ-crops in
succession, and therefore to plant the less profitable green crops
at first would be to reject a benefit Avhen within our reach.
Unfortunately for much land in England, and I think I may add
unfortunately for many tenants also, the exhaustive system of
cropping is too well known and too frequently practised to render
"it necessary for me to give any instruction on that head. The
plans for cropping suggested by me are such as I consider likely
to raise the fertility of the various soils, instead of lowering them ;
and I cannot believe that any system that has a tendency to
reduce the standard of fertility, can possibly work for the benefit
of any class for a lengthened period. Surely the farming of
England cannot be right, unless year by year English land is
increasing in fruitfulness. There has been, and there still is,
a strong prejudice on the part of owners against breaking up
pasture ; and if we may judge by what has been done with newly
broken-up land in many places, the objectors have full and

* 'Journal of Royal Agricultural Society,' Vol. v. p. 113 ; also Vol. xxiv. part
2, page 540.

Breaking vp Pastures. 17

sufficient reason for their opposition. Nearly every Airmer could
point to fields that he once knew as poor pasture ; then as heavy
corn-bearing^ land for a few years, and later and ever since as
poor, very poor arable land, and " he knows the reason why."
Surely, then, it is time that exhaustive systems were abandoned,
and more liberal and renovating- methods established in their stead.

The question of breaking up pasture, in its broader bearings,
not only affects the interests of the landlord, the tenant, and the
labourer, but enters so deeply into the general supply of food, and
field for the employment of labour, that it more or less con-
cerns the whole community. He who recognizes the wisdom of
him who wrote that "The profit of the earth is for all : the king
himself is served by the field,"* will feel the national importance
of this subject.

No one, however, would advise the indiscriminate breaking
up of pasture-land ; there is much rich grazing-ground and
whole districts in the dairy counties that ought to continue as
they are ; but, on the other hand, there is much grass-land that
has always been unsuited for pasture, its character being such
that it could not by ordinary means be made very productive either
to the dairyman or grazier. This inferior land (unless rendered
unfit by climate, altitude, heaviness of soil, or other peculiarity)
would, if brought into cultivation, under fair restrictions and
a well-regulated course of cropping, be more profitable to all
parties concerned than it is at present.

On the other hand, there is much old cultivated land that
would be benefited and renovated if laid to grass for a few years ;
so that on many farms for every field broken up another of equal
extent might be devoted to pasture. Our root-crops would at
all events be benefited by the exchange if, as seems likely, the
difficulty which has arisen of late years of securing a good growth
of turnips has been caused by the repetition of these crops on the
same land. Two fields in my o\Vn occupation which once grew
immense crops of swedes, now, Avith more liberal treatment in
manure, tScc,, are most precarious in their yield. The swedes
when planted make a good start, and a stranger would suppose
them to be quite secure ; but, as the summer advances, decay
begins at the roots, the leaves droop, and the plants become
entirely rotten when they have reached the size of a hen's egg.
Would not new land be a remedy for these and innumerable
other cases of a similar kind ?

Little Coxwell, Faringdon.

* Eccles. V. 9.

VOL. XXVI.

X 18 )

III, — On the Planting, Raising, and After - Management of
Orchards, and their various Kinds of Fruits, for Culinary
and other uses, considered as Marketable Productions of a Farm
adapted to the Counties of Worcester, Hereford, and Gloucester.
Bj Clement Cable.

Worcester Prize Essay.

In travelling through the cider districts every observant person
will be struck with the fact that in the management of our
orchards thei'e is a great want of system, and that in many
respects there is room for improvement ; and the occasion of
the Royal Agricultural Society's visit to Worcester is an
opportune moment for directing special attention to such
defects. Instead of the pleasing sight of a well-regulated
orchard, in which every tree is in its place, the rows coming
in line whichever way you look at them, the branches being
trained to a good height and kept well pruned, our visitors
will remark many specimens planted without order, very seldom
pruned, and oftentimes allowed to become so thick, that they
get covered with moss and lose their bearing properties many
years sooner than they would under proper management.

In the following remarks it will be my endeavour to carry out
the division of the subject proposed in the announcement of the
prize : —

1. The planting of the seed.

2. Raising the young stock.

3. The soil, aspect, and circumstances which attend

successful cultivation.

4. The after-management, — including planting out, graft-

ing, pruning. &c.
5". The various sorts of trees, with general remarks
attending the subject.

1. Planting the Seed.

There are almost as many ways of rearing young stocks for
an orchard as there are people who attempt it; for, with the
exception of nurserymen who make a business of it, you seldom
find two men doing it alike.

The common way amongst farmers is to transplant the young
plants that come on the must (or refuse-heap left from the last
year's cider-making) to some corner or out-of-the-way plot of
ground, where but little attention is bestowed upon them, and
they are left to take their chance. Some of the plants make
good stocks, but the greater proportion grow into short stunted

Management of Orcliards. 19

trees of little value ; and when these joung trees are planted
out, without a proper selection being made, their after-growth
exhibits great irregularity, and this accounts for the diversity to
be found in our orchards, in which many of the trees never
attain a sufficient height for being grafted.

It may be taken as an established rule that the wild apple, or
crab, is the best stock to graft upon, alike for the formation of
the tree, and also for the keeping properties of the cider. The
proper way is to take some crab-apples, such as are used for
making vinegar, and partially grind them in a mill, taking care
not to crush the kernels ; the juice should then be pressed out
and the pulp spread out to dry, either in a granary or loft ; or
if the weather is fine, it may be dried in the open air. It is
important to select such crab-apples as are ripe, so as to secure
the proper germinati(m of the seed.

After the pulp is well dried it should be stored in some dry
place till required for planting, care being taken to preserve it
from mice, which are very fond of the sweet kernels.

Some persons prefer picking the kernels out of the crabs or
apples without the crushing : this is not material, so long as care
is taken to get ripe fruit selected, then to get the keinels dry,
and keep them from damp, or other injury.

During the months of February, March, or April, some ground
should be prepared for the seed by being well cleaned and
manured. A sheltered plot in a garden is a good place, but a
piece of old turf which has been trenched up early in the winter
is far better. Upon the seed-bed thus prepared the kernels
should be strewed in drills 1 foot or 18 inches apart, and just
covered with earth ; when the must-refuse is used, it should be
well rubbed in the hand before being sown.

2. Raising the Young Stock.

Another plot of ground, either broken up pasture, as before
described, or land dressed with rotten farmyard-manure, should be
well prepared, and in open weather, soon after the leaves fall, the
young plants should lie removed to this plot, being placed in
rows 30 inches apart, and 12 inches between the plants, so that
the ground may be kept clean, and the young stocks attended to.
It is very important that this be done in open weather, for frost
is very injurious to the roots : any straggling roots may then be
trimmed, but it is better not to prune the top at this stage of the
growth, for, as the leaves are the lungs of the plant, every leaf is
now of consequence. After being thus planted out they should
be left till Midsummer, when the whole of the stocks should be
gone over, and any straggling branches or side-shoots should have
the end pinched off them : this will divert the sap up the main

c 2

20 Management of Orchards.

stem during the Midsummer shoot, and the plant will have the
benefit of the leaves till the following winter. These shoots
should then be removed with a sharp knife, care being taken to
make a smooth up cut. The importance of removing all branches,
and roots likewise, by a smooth iip cut, the edge of the knife being
kept away from the tree, cannot be too strongly urged ; for if the
branch be left bruised or ragged, it holds the wet, decay ensues,
and the energy of the young plant is most undesirably taxed to
heal and cover the sore ; whereas a smooth cut heals at once with
a slight scar, and apparently little effort, nature having provided
the tree with a curative power proportional to the injury received.
Whether the tree should be again removed before toeing planted
in the orchard is a much contested point ; many- affirm that by
moving the stock every year it is in the nursery, you get a
hardier and better rooted plant, but I think if the land is of good
quality and kept clean they need not be transplanted more than
once.

If the young stocks are to be grafted in the nursery (a plan
which I do not recommend, for reasons to be noticed hereafter),
it should be done in the third or fourth year of their growth.
After the stock is 1|- to 2 inches in diameter, or 5 or 6 inches in
circumference, it is fit for planting out into the orchard : to
attain this size under proper management on good land will
take five years, but sometimes six or seven are required.

Other ways of rearing young trees, by suckers, or layers, or
cuttings, may be just mentioned, but they are not to be recom-
mended for the establishment of an orchard.

3. The Soil, Aspect, and other Circumstances attending
successful Cultivation.

The best soils for the growth of apples are the strong loams
and clays on the old red sandstone in Herefordshire, Devonshire,
parts of Gloucestershire and of Somersetshire, and the alluvial
deposits resting thereon ; but some fine fruit is produced on
the new red sandstone and blue lias. Pears flourish more on the
new red sandstone than on any other soils, as we have abundant
proof in Worcestershire.

As a general rule wherever hops are successfully grown
orchards flourish, and either a good luscious cider is produced,
or excellent table-fruit. The London clay produces good fruit,
but it is more suitable for culinary and table purposes than for
making cider, and this is generally true with the drier climate
of the Eastern counties ; the moist climate of the Western coun-
ties being requisite to produce that juicy fruit which is suitable
for making cider.

Although the presence of lime in the soil is generally desirable

Management of Orchards. 21

for the hoaltliy growth of fruit, yet the apple-tree does not flourish
on limestone formations : hence you seldom see any orchards in
the centre of England, on the oolitic and chalk formations ; and
where apples are grown on a limestone soil, the cider is pale in
colour and of inferior quality.

A good depth of soil is of first importance : its texture should
be sufficiently tenacious to retain moisture, and not so stiff as to
prevent the free passage of water and air ; but where the ground is
very stiff, a judicious system of drainage will be valuable. The
alluvial deposits on the banks of rivers (where the stream is not
too rapid to« allow a due proportion of clay to be left) are often
very valuable for orchards, of which examples may be seen in the
vales of the rivers Severn, Wye, Lugg, and Froome. I know of
an instance or two in the parish of Westbury-upon-Severn where
COZ. and 101. have been made in one season by the sale of plums
grown on less than an acre of land of this description.

For the counties of Worcester, Flereford, and Gloucester, a
southern aspect is the best ; for, amongst other reasons, it is very
important for the trees and fruit to get the full power of the
sun all day. The sweetness of the fruit is in a great measure
dependent upon its starch being changed into sugar, and the
influence of the sun in ripening the young wood must not be
overlooked.

The next best aspect is the western, its chief disadvantage
being the strong winds prevalent in the autumn when the trees
are covered with fruit ; but if their force is broken by surrounding
hills, this aspect is nearly as good as the southern.

In an eastern aspect the trees are more subject to blight,
which generally is accompanied by east winds. I know this to
be the case in my own neighbourhood, but I cannot account for
it unless the cold east winds check the healthy action of the
juices near the bark, and thus favour the production of the aphis,
which is the acknowledged blight.

Frost seldom hurts the trees, unless it comes after rain when the
trees are in bloom ; the destruction of the wet blossoms is then
certain. Orchards planted on high ground suffer less, because
they dry faster than those on the lower lands, which are specially
subject to spring frosts.

4. The After- Management, including Planting Out, Grafting,
Pruning, ^'c.

Having fixed on a field for an orchard, either for making
cider or sales at market, and attended to the rules before-
mentioned with regard to draining, &.C., take a cross-staff and
set out in a field a large square, or rectangle, the sides being
divisible by the number of yards you intend to have between
your trees ; place a stake to mark the place of each tree in the

22

3Ianagement of Orchards.

two outer rows, and then fill in the centre with stakes, showing
where each tree is to stand ; by this means you will get the
trees in rows every way, as below. The outer lines show the

boundary of the field. The broad line shows the rectangle,
144 yards x 60 yards. The dotted lines show the line of sight,
so that, from whatever point you look at the orchard, the trees
appear in rows. The portion of the field outside the rectangle
can be afterwards planted on the same scheme. If you begin
planting on one side, you will to a certainty fail in getting the
last trees into their proper places ; for if one be set but an inch
out^of line, it throws the next still farther out.

In planting, if the subsoil is stiff and of bad quality, the holes
should be made larger and deeper than usual, the top soil being
placed under the roots ; but in a good loamy soil it is sufficient
to make them 2 feet square, taking care to have the centre 2 or
3 inches higher than the outsides. The roots of the young trees
should now be examined, and any rough, straggling portions cut
off; an assistant should hold the tree in its proper position whilst
some good mould is shaken amongst the roots. After it has
been further covered with 5 or 6 inches of loose mould, the stock
should be taken with both hands, about a foot from the ground,
and slightly shaken up and down, that the loose earth may settle
round the roots, care being taken not to raise it high enough for
the roots to get doubled up.

It is very important to avoid the common mistake of planting

the stock too deep. On stiff soils the previous depth in the nursery

on loose soils it is advisable to go, say 1 to

In this, as in all other agricultural operations,

will exercise his judgment. Many planters

burnt ashes and other manure be thrown into

is sufficient ; but
2 inches deeper,
the good farmer
recommend that

the hole before planting the stock ; but if the land is good, the
change of soil is sufficient, under ordinary circumstances, for

Mana/jement of Orchards. 23

some years. Any manure applied will do more good by being
spread on the surface, and washed into the roots, than if placed
under the tree, where the rain would carry it still deeper down,
and waste its virtues. Neither is it advisable to place farmyard-
dung or other rank manure under the roots.

Before the stock is planted the top should be cut back to
within 12 or 18 inches of the fork, as this will induce the tree
to throw out fresh roots. The distance to be adopted between
the trees is an important but disputed point. It should be our
aim that no two trees, when full grown, should touch each other,
so that the distance in a great measure depends on sort, soil, &:c. :
about 12 yards is the average interval, and it should never be less
than 10 yards. This may seem wide to those vS^xo have been in the
habit of planting at 6 or 7 yards. The effects of close planting are
to be seen in almost every parish : the boughs run into each other,
and the trees become like a wood, and covered with moss ; for want
of ^lir the herbage is destroyed, and the trees leave off bearing, and
have all the symptoms of age, when they would have been most pro-
ductive had the distance between them been sufficient. I can men-
tion an instance in which the same man who, when young, assisted
to plant an orchard, was employed, before he was sixty years of
age, to cut down some of the same trees in consequence of their
being so thick that they killed the grass under them. I was
present myself, and saw that many of the boughs were interlaced
one with the other for two or three yards. The fruit grown on
these thick trees is only fit for making sour cider, as a great pro-
portion of it never properly ripens.

This thin planting is no new theory. I have in my possession
a book 210 years old, called ' Country Contentments,' by Jervase
Markham. The author says, after writing upon small, evil-
thriving, sour fruit, galls, wounds, diseases, and short life to
trees — " To prevent which discommodity, one of the best remedies
is the sufficient and fit distance of trees. Therefore at the
setting of your plants you must have such respect that the dis-
tance of them be such that every tree be not an annoyance but
a help to his fellows ; for trees (as all other things of the same
kind) should shroud and not hurt one another ; and assure yourself
that every touch of trees (as well under as above) is hurtful!.
Therefore this must be a general rule in this art, that no tree in
an orchard well ordered, nor no bough, nor cyon drop upon or
touch his fellows." He afterwards says — " And herein I am of
a contrary opinion to all them which practise or teach the plant-
ing of trees that ever yet I knew, read, or heard of, for the
common space between tree and tree is ten foot ; if twenty foot,
it is thought very much. But I suppose 20 yards distance is small
enough betwixt tree and tree, or rather too too little. For the dis-

24 Management of Orchards.

tance must needs be as far as two trees are well able to over-
spread and fill, so thej touch not by one yard at least."

When the stocks are all planted, they should at once be pro-
tected from cattle and sheep, either by a triangular guard formed
with three stakes and cross-bars, for which hurdle-materials are
stout enough, or else with furze or bushes, bound round the tree
by a withe or two, if more convenient to the farmer. The
objection to the latter guard is, that in a year or so it is rubbed
off by cattle, and its repair is overlooked until the young tree is
peeled. Another plan is to use galvanized wire lattice-work,
which can be had at Ad. per tree. Good stocks vary in price
from Is. to 2^. Q>d. each : if you buy, get good stocks, and never
mind the price ; awd be sure they are between 6 and 7 feet
high.

As to the cost of planting, an orchard set out at 12 yards be-
tween each tree will take nearly thirty-four trees per acre ; and
as good stocks, 6 to 7 feet between root and branches, alld
2 inches in diameter, will cost, say 2s. 6t?. each, the expense
will be as under : —

£. s. d.

34 trees, at 2s, 6fZ 4 5

Planting, at 6(i. eacli 17

Protecting with timber at j

Is., or with bushes at od. 8s. Qd. > 1 14
Galvanized hattice wire, at 4rZ. lis. Aid.)

Grafting, at 1 5 (Z 3 8 or with food, IcZ.

Pruning for first 8 years 17

£7 16 8

If the trees be planted at 10 yards' distance, the price would be
very much increased, as 48 trees would then be required, which,
at the same rate, would cost 11/. \s. 2d. A tenant-farmer, unless
he has a lease, or a thorough confidence in his landlord, may well
hesitate about making such an outlay as this, for which his
prospect of return or compensation is precarious. Yet I have
never met with any mention of tenant-right with respect to the
planting an orchard, except that recorded by Professor Tanner,
in his Report on the Agriculture of Shropshire, vol. xli, ' Royal
Agricultural Society's Journal.' He there writes — " Where
orchards are planted by the tenant, if he leaves the farm within
eight years, the cost of the trees and interest are paid to him in
full ; but the compensation subsequently decreases one-eighth
every year." I should strongly recommend that a clause to this
effect should be adopted in the counties of Hereford or Wor-
cester ; for it would much benefit estates, and tend to their being
well stocked with fruit-trees. When in an old orchard the trees
are worn out, I should not recommend its being replanted, at least

Management of Orchards. 25

with the same khid of fruit-tree. It will be better to select a new
field, and fresh, unexhausted soil.

For the grafting, it will be well to employ a practised
and careful hand ; many such may be readily found. The
general price is \d. per graft, and food. For general orchard
purposes I recommend cleft-grafting, after the trees are planted
out. Nurserymen generally get a better price for a grafted
than for an ungrafted stock, and they prefer saddle and other
kinds of grafting, which is done while the tree is young. If you
have the grafting done after the planting-out, you can choose
your own sorts ; and the trees always make better heads ; they
come better together, and match better in the orchard. The
grafting should be done either the first or the third 3ear after
planting, and not in the second year. The reason for this is,
that in the first year you cut the top back to favour the growth
of the roots ; and although in the second year there would be
energy enough left to support the grafts, still they are not found
to do so well (perhaps in consequence of the young roots taking
too much of the nourishment) as if you wait till the third year,
when the tree is well established.

In the third year the top should be sawn off in the month of
February to keep the sap back ; and at the time of grafting, in
March or April, should be cut off another inch or so below the
first cut ; then, with the saw, make a slanting cut into the stock,
and with a sharp knife cut a wedge-shaped opening into it ; then
take the graft, reduced to about 9 inches in length, and cut the
lower end so that it just fits the cleft in the stock, and so adjust
it that the graft and stock fit perfectly all the way up, keeping
the tissues or inner rind of the graft exactly opposite those in the
stock ; it should then be gently tapped on the top with a small
mallet to drive it firmly in its place ; and then covered with
a composition of chopped hay and clay, well tempered together,
forming a ball, in the shape of an e^^, round the junction of the
graft and stock. This will remain for a twelvemonth ; but if it
does not fall off in eighteen months, it should be removed.

It is an excellent plan to have some wicker-baskets made for
enclosing the graft, which, being bound to the stock below the
graft, protect it from blows or gales : they can be had at a cost
of about Qd. each. In choosing the grafts it is very important not
to cut them from cankered, diseased, or even old trees ; the l)est
are taken from good bearers, about one-third grown. These
may be cut as early as February, and may be kept in a damp
cellar, or any moist place, or they may be pushed into the soil
3 or 4 inches deep in any piece of garden-ground. The grafts
should be cut before the sap commences its spring movement.

It will very much improve the orchard if, as far as the choice

26

Manafjement of Orcliards.

of varieties permits, the trees are grafted in rows, so that one
row be assigned to a wide-spreading sort, and the next to one
of more upright growth.

1. The Graft.

2, The Stock. 3. The Graft covered with clay.

4. The Guard.

On the early pruning of young apple-trees their future growth
depends. Great care is requisite to secure a well-formed head ;
neglect at this time is irreparable. There are generally three or
four buds left on the graft, and from these the careful pruner
forms his tree. These, in the second winter after grafting,
should be looked over, and any branches not growing right should
be removed, and also any side-shoots on the stock, and which
may be diverting the sap from the graft.

Every winter, as soon as the leaves are fallen, or not later
than January, the young trees should be gone over, and all cross-
branches cut out ; for these branches are the future limbs of the
tree, and, to produce a wide-spreading head, these must radiate
and spread outwards ; every branch that rubs against another
should also be removed. If the object be to grow table-fruit
of a large size, it will be the more essential to keep the boughs
thin and open, and you must not expect to get both quantity and
quality. Great care is requisite in the removal of useless wood
which does not bear. Pruning is too commonly either over-

Management of Orchards. 27

done, so that the trees are weakened by too much being' cut at
once, or else it is neglected, and the orchard left quite to itself.
Many of those who profess to understand it — and even some who
have followed it for years — are unable to state any rule for their
practice, it being with them quite haphazard work where to cut,
and where not.

The chief object of the pruner is to keep up a supply of
bearing wood in its most productive stage of growth. I have
conversed with some who, as in the case of vines, advocate mid-
summer pruning, with the object of throwing the sap, which
would otherwise be expended on the branches to be removed,
into those which are left, and thus make the fruit grown much
finer. As I have not seen the system in operation, I merely call
attention to it Avithout further comment.

The main rule in pruning is to prune every year whilst the
trees are young, and in after years never to exceed three years
between each pruning. When a large quantity of cider is the
chief object, much pruning is not desirable ; but if quality be of
importance, then the trees should be so pruned that nearly every
apple may get sufficient sun to ripen it. If the fruit is required
for table use, or for sale, the same pruning must be effected, and
care must also be taken that the fruit be not left too thick on the
tree. This is never much attended to in orchards ; but what
would become of wall-fruit if the trees were not properly
thinned ?

The Sorts of Fruit* — It is almost impossible to give satis-
factory information on this head, because the same sort is not
only known by different names in different localities, but also
it assumes a widely different character under the influence of
broad distinctions of soil and climate, and this is more frequently
the case with pears and apples. In a tour I made last autumn in
the south of Devonshire, I visited several farms in the neighbour-
hood of Totnes and Paignton, and amongst a great number of
sorts that I there saw, I could in no instance recognise either an
apple or tree as being like those I had seen before in Hereford-
shire, Gloucestershire, or Worcestershire ; but as this Essay only
applies to these counties, the matter is very much simplified.
For these reasons the choice of sorts must be left in great measure
to local inquiry, those which suit best one district being often in
no repute in another.

But in selecting trees for producing cider or perry, it is very
important not only to get those kinds which suit the district,

* Professor Johnson, in his ' Chemistry of Common Life,' vol. i. p. 314, says, —
" In Normandy not less than 5(i(i() differently named varieties of the acid or bitter
apple are known, and grown for the manufacture of cider."

28 Management of Orchards.

but to get a variety in their character, especially for making
good cider. Thus, some of the apples should be sour, others
sweet, bitter-sweet, tart, and harsh, as much of the keeping cha-
racter of the cider depends upon this mixture, which also makes
it fine down well. It may be remarked, that sweet or eating
sorts of pears seldom make perry that will keep any length of
time, or that fines well.

There is another peculiar feature in regard to sorts of fruit,
viz., that each variety has its day, then gradually dies out — the
trees become non-bearers, and their places are filled with new
sorts. This is especially the case with the Hagloe Crab, Fox-
whelp, and Skyrme's Kernel, which seldom bear or grow well
now, and are nearly gone out.

List op Pears.

Barland — Produce great ; imtil last few years in great demand for

early drinking.
Oldfield — Produce moderate ; easily fined, and of great value for

bottling.
Moorcroft — Produce moderate ; very strong, making nearly the

strongest perry we have.
Longland — Produce great ; perry of a very high colour.
Eed pear — Produce gi-eat ; much used for bottling ; valuable sort.
Blakeney Bed pear — Produce great ; quantity of liquor great.
Trump pear — Produce great ; perry strong and large in quantity,

but bad to keep.
Pine pear — Produce great ; perry large in quantity, but not very

good in quality.
Huffcap — Produce variable ; in some districts good and used for

bottling.
Holmore pear — Produce large and of good quahty in some dis-
tricts.
Taynton Squash — Produce middling ; the most valuable sort for

bottling.
Thorn pear — Produce large ; perry not very good, and will not

keep.
Honey pear — Produce large, but a very small pear.
And numerous other sorts having local names, such as the Dadnor

pear, Ingestone pear, &c.

List of Apples.

Tliose marked with (A) are good for hoardinfj, and those with f are good
for boiling.

■ Skyrme's Kernel — Tart ; good for cider.

Boyal Wilding — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.
Black Foxwhelp — Moderately tart ; good for cider.
fEed Foxwhelp (A) — Moderately tart ; good for cider.
Cowan Eed — Sweet ; good for cider.

Management of Orchards. 29

|Dymock Eed [A) — Very sweet ; good for cider.

White Normau — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Eed Normau — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Hagloe Crab — Tart ; good for cider.

Pawson — Tart ; good for cider.
fRedstreak — Sweet ; good for cider.

Yellow Styre — Sweet ; good for cider.
jHooper's Kernel (J.) — moderately sweet ; good for cider.
JHill Barn Kernel {A) — Sweet ; good for cider.
jRibston Pippin {A) — Sweet ; good for table and keeping.

Golden Harvey {A) — Sweet ; good for table and for cider.

Siberian Harvey — Sweet ; good for cider.

Farewell Blossom — Tart and bitter ; large bearer.

Upright French — Bitter sweet ; largo bearer.

Black or Red French — Bitter sweet.

Knotted Kernel — Tart.

Leather Apple — Hardly any taste.

Ironsides {A) — Hardly any taste ; good for keeping.
jCats'-heads {A) — Sweet ; good for cider.

Pigs'-eyes — Sweet.

Downton Pippin [A) — Sweet ; table and eating.
fCodlings {A) — Sweet ; good as boilers and for cider.
JMay Blooms {A) — Sweet ; good for cider, boiling, and keeping.

Rough Coat {A) — Dry and sweet ; good keepers.

Brandy Apple {A) — Very sweet ; makes strong cider.
fCowarne Quinine {A) — Sweet ; good for cider,
f Blenheim Orange \A) — -Very sweet ; good for table,
f Golden Pipi)in (J.) — Very sweet ; good for table.

Old Pearmain (yl)— Very sweet ; -good for table.
\ Brown Crests — Very sweet.

Under Leaves — Sweet ; large bearer.

Eed Kernel — Sweet ; good for cider.
■{•Reynolds's Kernel (J.)— Sweet ; large pot-fruit.

Newland Kernel — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Jackson's Kernel — Tart.
tSam's Crab— Tart,
f Bridgewater Pippin [A) — Sweet.
jSpice Apple {A) — Sweet.

White Beach — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Handsome Mandy — Bitter sweet ; good for cider.

Golden Rennet {A) — Sweet.

Pin Apple — Moderately tart ; wood cankers.
fStoke Pippin (.1) — Sweet: good bearers j pot-fruit and for cider,
and numerous others.

Among the Devonshire sorts I noted the Cockafjee, Styer,
Royal Redstreak, Dulllinif, Thousand-pound-ap])le, Fourpennj-
apple, Sheep-nose, Pocket-apple, «Scc. Perhaps the most general
favourite with us is the Upright French, especially on sandy

30 3fanagement of Orchards.

soils, and where quantity rather than quality is desired, in con-
sequence of the certainty of getting a crop every other year.
Many of the sorts here mentioned have three or four different
names in different districts ; and some of these are the same sort
only changed in name, form, and character by change of district.
The finest class of fruit-trees I have ever met with are in the
parish of Monkland, near Leominster, where it is quite the
exception to be able to reach the fork, or part where the branches
leave the trunk, and the trees attain a " large size. Near the
Rectory is a remarkably fine pear-tree orchard ; indeed through-
out the parish the fruit-trees are very large, kind, and healthy.
But although each sort has its own characteristics of growth and
stature, the size of the tree depends more on the nature and
quality of the soil than on these peculiarities. The orchards
in Worcestershire seem to get better attention than those in
Herefordshire ; and, from the climate being drier, they are not so
much covered with moss. I was surprised to see how well they
were pruned between Worcester and the parish of Rock, and also
in several other places in that county which 1 have had occasion
to visit ; but I suppose the less fruit there is grown, the more it
is appreciated, and therefore attended to.

I have not given any account of the diseases of trees, as I do
not think there is any cure : prevention is the surest plan. Be
sure not to graft from cankered wood ; and the better to insure
this, cut the grafts yourself, or see them cut. The blight is not
under the control of the farmer ; nor do I pretend to investigate
its origin. As it is acknowledged to be the Aphis, or plant-louse,
it is certain little can be done in the way of prevention ; for
in a few days after an east wind has reached us, the trees are
covered with myriads, although in some seasons we are quite
free.*

The growth of moss on the orchard-trees is more under our
control, as it is favoured by damp and the want of a free circu-
lation of air : draining and good pruning will do much to correct
this evil ; but it is also a good plan to wash the body and limbs
of the tree with a mixture of lime and coAv-dung every two or
three years.

I am fully convinced, that if more attention were paid to the

* Ou the subject of blight Mr. Belfield states (in the ' Bath and West of England
Journal,' New Series, vol. iii. p. 196) that the blight is the I'esultof a check in the
sap caused by a sudden change in the atmosphere. My own observation tends
to confirm this view rather than that of Mr. Tyrrell, who, in vol. v. p. 325, of the
same Joiirnal, states that it is not always the aphis, but sometimes a black grub,
then a green one, at other times a striped one, that infests the trees. But these
grubs do not generally come till after the leaves are on the trees, consequently the
damage is not so wholesale.

Management of Orchards.

31

cultivation of apples of a large size, there would be a good sale
for them to go to the manufacturing districts. In the neighbour-
hood of Gloucester and Worcester, many farmers make a large
profit by the sale of fruit, some years getting 55. to G.v. per pot
for them. When apples are abundant they are sometimes pur-
chased for use as a dyeing material ; but the demand is not large
or important.

The following analyses show the composition of apples and
pears : —

Apples according to Berard.
Water 86-28

Sugar . .

Ligneous luatter

Gum

Malic acid

Albumen

Chlorophylc ..

Lime

0-45
3-80
3-17
•11
•08
•08
•03

Tears according to Berard,
Water 8G^25

Sugar

Vegetable fibre

Gum

Malic acid

Albumen

Chloropliyle ..

Lime

G-45
3^80
3^17
•14
•08
•08
•03

Apples contain 0'27 per cent, of ash, and pears 0'41, the com-
position of which, according to Richardson, is as follows : —

Apples.

Potash 35-68

Soda 26-09

Lime 4-08

Magnesia 8-75

Sulphuric acid 6-09

Silicic acid 4*32

Phosphoric acid 12'34

Phosphate of sesquioxide of

iron 2-65

100-00

Pears.

Potash 54-69

Soda 8-69

Lime 7-98

Magnesia 5-22

Sulphuric acid 5-69

Silicic acid 1*49

Phosphoric acid 14-28

Phosphate of sesquioxide of

iron 1-96

Chloride of sodium . . . . trace

100-00

An examination of these analyses suggests an explanation of
a variety of facts well known amongst practical men. Thus,
pears contain more lime and potash, but less silica and soda
than is found in apples ; hence pears are better adapted to some
situations, and apples to others. Some pear-trees bear a ton
every year ; and in a ton of pears there would be upwards of
4^ lbs. of potash : thirty such crops would remove jnore than
1 cwt. of potash from the soil traversed by the roots of the tree ;
hence it is not desirable to plant pear-trees in land deficient in
potash. Apples contain a less quantity of potash, but three
times as much silicic acid, and also more magnesia ; and thus
we see one reason why we sometimes find one fruit flourish so
much better than the other.

32 Management of Orchards.

The resemblance between the ashes of the hop-plant* and
those of apples may perhaps explain the fact previously named,
that good cider is produced in the same districts where good hops
are grown. Trees, when in a state of nature, prevail on soils
adapted to their special requirements ; for instance, when one
generation dies out it is mostly replaced by another kind of tree,
as is often seen in American and other forests. Chemistry has ex-
plained that this change arises from the partial exhaustion of some
particular constituent in the soil ; and it also warns us, in our cul-
tivated lands, not to persist, except under special circumstances,
in the cultivation of the same plant.

Orchards should be manured once in five or six years, or at
farthest six to eight years ; the stronger the soil the larger may
be the quantity, and the greater the interval ; as the lighter the
soil, the more readily is the manure washed into the porous rocks
below. The following would, I think, be found a good dressing
for orchards, viz., a mixture of carbonate of potash, common
salt, nitrate of soda, and either partially dissolved bone, bone
superphosphate, or fine bone, mixed together, the bone manures
being varied according to the nature of the soil. If it be light,
bones may be used ; if very stiff, superphosphate. A compost
should also be made every year of the must or refu.se-heap left
from the cider-making. This is usually considered of no account
because of the acetic and lactic acids present ; but I have found
from experience, that if hot lime is mixed with it, these acids
are neutralized, and a good compost obtained by the following
winter. It should be applied to the trees 2 yards beyond the
extending branches, and to within 2 yards of the trunk, and not
thrown close round the trunk, as is commonly done.

I have not taken any account of cherries, plums, and other
fruits, which, in the counties . specified, are not among the
marketable productions of the farm, but generally confined to
gardens. Many of the same rules apply to these fruits as to
apples and pears.

Ballingliam Hall, Boss,
Herefordshire.

* Hop ashes contain 19-41 per cent, of potash, 17"88 of silicic acid, 14*15 of lime,
5-34 of magnesia, and scarcely any soda at all.

i

( 33 )

IV. — Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases as
affecting Domesticated Animals. By James Beart Simonds,
Professor of Cattle Pathology, Royal Veterinary College.

Investigations of the lower forms of animal life are among
those which most interest and instruct the student of Natural
History ; but when they have for their more immediate object
-an elucidation of the causes of disease they acquire an import-
ance not otherwise belonging to them.

The study of those creatures known as parasitic has of late
years been rewarded by most unexpected discoveries, and we
are now enabled to understand much of that which before was
mysterious and hidden. Nor is this all, for to a great extent,
also, we have been furnished with the means of preventing
many of the diseases which are known to be connected with the
presence of parasites both in man and animals. Each diligent
investigator has in his turn contributed something to our former
knowledge, but yet much remains to be done. A rich harvest
still awaits him who labours in this field of science.

In the following pages we purpose to speak of the parasites
affecting domesticated animals in particular ; to describe their
structure and habits, and to deal practically with the means of
either effecting their removal from the bodies of their hosts, or
of counteracting their morbific influences. It may be truly said
that no part of the organism is exempt from their indwelling,
and that to reach their habitat many of them undergo strange
jnigrations, and still stranger transformations, the particulars of
which Avill, however, best appear as each creature is passed in
review.

Parasites are usually divided into three classes : those which
infest the skin in particular, and being upon an animal have
hence been termed Epizoa ; those which occupy for a given
time only, while undergoing a metamorphosis, either the ex-
ternal, or some internal part of the body with which there is a
direct communication — the Ectozoa ; and those which inhabit
the internal organs and are met with at times in every tissue
of the frame — the Entozoa. In our description we purpose to
deal with the different individuals belonging to these several
classes, in the order in which they have been named.

Epizoa.
Palex. — The Flea.

The flea is too well known to require a special description
either of its structure or form. It is a creature remarkable for
VOL. I. D

34 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

its agility and strength, being capable, according to computation,
of leaping fully two hundred times its own length, and of moving
a weight which many times exceeds that of its body.

Fleas infest various mammals and also birds, but are rarely met
with on any domesticated animal, excepting the pig, the dog, and
the cat. Poultry and pigeons are likewise subject to fleas, and
occasionally they are present in very large numbers in old straw
or thatch, and are thus brought into the cattle-sheds and pig-
cotes of the farm, or even into the house itself. In a case which
came under our notice some years since, we were enabled to trace
their presence to the erection of some pigsties with old building-
materials, and the thatching of them with old straw. They
were erected in a meadow near to the premises, and proved
to be so infested with fleas that the proprietor at last wisely
determined not only on pulling them down, but on setting fire to
the whole of the materials. By these means alone he succeeded
in freeing his dwelling-house, and also that of a neighbour, from
these troublesome parasites.

Besides instances of this kind, it has not unfrequently hap-
pened that extraordinary visitations of fleas have taken place in
particular districts, the origin of which could not be traced. We
were recently informed of such a case ; too late, however, even
for an examination of specimens to determine the variety to
which the fleas belonged. The visitation assumed such propor-
tions that not only the yards and buildings but the adjacent fields
also swarmed with these troublesome insects. After remaining
for three or four weeks, to the great discomfort of the family as
well as of the animals on the farm, they gradually disappeared,
without any means for their eradication having been adopted.

Naturalists place the flea in the order Diptera, sub-order
Aphaniptera — sheath-winged and hopping diptera — and family
Pulicida, of which it constitutes the only genus, although the
varieties are numerous, amounting, according to some authors,
to as many as twenty-five. The insect undergoes a complete
metamorphosis, analogous in every respect to that of moths or
butterflies. The female flea of man — Pulex irritans — is said to
lay about a dozen eggs at a time, which are ovoid in form and
comparatively large, bearing a strong resemblance in these par-
ticulars to the egg of the dog-flea. At first the eggs are of a
whitish colour, but they soon acquire a dark hue.

The egg of the dog-flea, see Fig. 1, A., which may be taken
as a type of the class, gives birth after a very short period
to a larva, which is long and slender, somewhat resembling
a worm in its form, and differing in no essential particular
from the larva of the Pulex irritans. The larva. Fig. 1, B,
as will be observed in the illustration, consists of fourteen

I

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 35

segments, including the liead. These gradually increase in
size towards the caudal extremity of the creature, reaching
their fullest dimensions at about the tenth segment, from
which thoy again diminish. Although the larva is not fur-
nished with legs, it is nevertheless remarkably active in its
movements, which are crawling or worm-like. The head is
surmounted by two very small antennae. The mandibles are
well developed, but their precise arrangement does not admit
of being clearly defined. No eyes can be detected. Each seg-
ment below the head is beset with a few stiff hairs, the number
and size of which also increase towards the caudal end ot the
larva. On the edge of the last segment but one the hairs are so
long and thickly set as to form a kind of fringe, which often'^pro-
jects beyond the booklets that are here developed. A similar
arrangement of them is also to be observed, but in a less degree,
upon the last four or five segments. Besides this peculiarity,
the extreme end of the last segment is furnished with a tuft of
very fine hair, and it gives origin also to the two small booklets
previously alluded to.

Fig. 1.

Ovum and Larva of Dog-Flea. Magnified.

It is thought by some naturalists that the larva of each variety of
flea, besides inhabiting the skin of the animal to which it especially
belongs, often travels to other mammals or birds, obtaining from
them a supply of food suited to its rapid growth and development.
According to Rymer Jones, the larva of the Pulex irritans attains
its full size in about twelve days subsequently to quitting the eg^.,
when it forms for itself a small cocoon, after the manner of the
silk-worm, and changes into a pupa. Whatever the fact may be
with reference to the larva of this flea, we can take upon our-
selves to say that the larva of the Pulex Canis often lives double
this time before the change is effected. The period Avhich
elapses before the imarjo bursts forth is said by Newman
and others to range from eleven to sixteen days, a statement
which our observations tend to confirm.

The Pulex Canis. — Firstly, it is necessary to remark, that as
the form of the flea is modified in each individual animal whose
body it inhabits, the flea of the dog can be easily distinguished
from any other by a microscopical examination. The chief

D 2

36 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

points of difference between it and the Ptdex irritans consist in
the lower part of its head, and the upper and lateral parts of
its protothorax being provided with a comb-like fringe. The
use of this is not very apparent, but probably by the pectinate
edge of the protothorax the creature is enabled to keep a firmer
hold of the hairs when travelling over the body of the dog,
while by that of the lower part of the head it can the more
easily push aside the downy hairs so as to insert its lancets and
suctorial organ into the skin to obtain its food. When located
on the body, even in small numbers, dog-fleas cause considerable
and persistent irritation, but do not give rise to any special
form of eruption, although the dog will occasionally rub him-
self quite bare in places in his attempt to rid himself of their
presence.

All the metamorphoses which the creature passes through
are frequently completed on the skin of the dog, and hence
many dogs suffer considerably from fleas for months together.
A remarkable instance of this kind was brought under our notice
a few years since by Mr. Austin, M.R.C.V.S., of Exeter, in which
a dog had been for six months the subject of excessive cutaneous
irritation. The case will be found recorded at p. 335 of ' The
Veterinai'ian ' for 1855.

Mr. Austin stated in his communication, that although the
itching had existed so long, and was always very considerable,
still, when the animal was brought under his care, no eruption
was to be observed. On making a close examination, however,
he says, " 1 discovered a number of little animals, unlike any I
had ever seen before, upon nearly every part of the dog's body.
I succeeded in getting some of these alive, mixed, however, with
much dirt and scales of cuticle. I send them by a friend, and
hope they will reach you before they are dead or dried up."

In commenting on this case, in the Journal alluded to, we
observed, " that more than a month had elapsed before the
small jar containing the parasites came to hand, and conse-
quently we despaired of finding any of them alive. To our
surprise, however, we found three or four still living among
the mass of dirt and cuticle. A slight examination Avas sufh-
cient to show that these were the larvce of some insect,
and the microscope at once decided that they were the
larvae of the dog-flea. Further search showed that there were
numerous dead larvae and exuvia? present, and therefore, to
facilitate our future examination, the whole mass was placed
in a phial with some diluted spirit, that the organisms might
be freed from the dirt, and be the more readily selected after
their imbibition of the fluid. By this means we obtained speci-
mens which rendered the history of the dog-flea perfect and com-

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 37

plete. Thus we have in our possession ova, showins^ more or
less perfectly the formation of larva> within them ; ova-cases,
from which the larvae had escaped ; larva', in different stages of
growth ; exuvioi, as cast oft' from time to time from the growing
larva* ; pupa;, in their various stages of change into the perfect
insect ; and insects themselves just brought into active life." *

Tliis extract, in addition to our other remarks, so fully
explains everything connected with the habitat and effects of
the dog-flea, that we may proceed tf) speak of the means at our
command to rid the animal of this troublesome parasite.

Blaine, in his ' Canine Pathology,' thus writes : —

" Washing the body ■well with soap-suds and directly afterwards combing it
with a small-toothed comb are the most ready means of dislodging those nimble
gentry. But it must be remembered that the previous washing is only to
enable the comb more readily to overtake them ; the water does not destroy
them, for dogs who swim every day are still found to have fleas. These insects
are very tenacious of life, and soon recover this temporary drowning ; the
comb, therefore, is principally to be depended on for their ca])ture before they
recover. But as washing is not, in many instances, a salutary practice ; and
as, iu many others, it is a very inconvenient one, so it becomes a matter worthy
of consideration how to be enabled to destroy them without these means.

" Sopping the skin with tobacco-water has been recommended; but it has
only a momentary effect, and it not unfrequently poisons the dog. Innumer-
able other means I have tried to drive away fleas, but the onlj' tolerably
certain one 1 have discovered, is to make dogs sleep on fresh yellow deal
shavings. These shavings may be made so fine as to be as soft as a feather-
bed, and, if changed every week or fortnight, they make the most cleanly and
Avholesome one that a dog can rest on ; and the turpentine in them is very
obnoxious to the fleas. But, where it is absolutely impracticable to employ
deal shavings, it will be found useful to rub or dredge the dog's hide, once or
twice a week, with very finely-powdered resin; if simply rubV)cd in, add some
bran." f

Besides the means recommended by Blaine, our experience
in the use of a watery solution of the sulphide of potassium
in the destruction of fleas and their larv<r, warrants us in
strongly recommending this agent. Let the dog be sponged
over with the solution, freshly made by adding 2 ozs, of the
sulphide to a pint of water. The whole body should be
covered at a time, and the sponging be repeated two or three
days in succession, after which the skin should be thoroughly
cleansed with soap and water.

It should be remembered, however, that where dogs are sleep-
ing in kennels out of doors the most effectual means of ridding
them of fleas will often fail for want of a complete cleansing of the
kennels. These should not only be well washed, but thoroughly
purified with lime-water, and it may even be necessary to do
this two or three times in succession. The same care should

'Veterinarian,' 1855, p. 335. f 'Canine Pathology,' p. 281.

38 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

be taken also to cleanse all sleeping-places and everything con-
tiguous to them, where these parasites, either in their perfect
form or in one or other of their metamorphoses, are likely to
exist. Similar means are to be employed in ridding pigs, and
pig-cotes of fleas, and especially should all the old litter be
destroyed.

Pulex penetrans. — The Sand-Flea, Chigger, Chique,
Chigue, &c.

Another of the family of Pulicidce is the Pulex penetrans, a
variety from which this country is fortunately exempt. It has
been said, however, to exist in the feet of sheep, and to be the
means by which "foot-rot" extends in a flock, even in this country.
The late Mr. Youatt, who was himself a believer in the contagious-
ness of this disease, thus writes : — " Some persons have imagined
that foot-rot is propagated by means of animalculae which are bred
in the virus of the part, and falling on the pasture attack the feet
of other sheep. They have gone so far as to describe this insect,
and to give it a name — the Pulex penetrans. The author of this
work has often sought for it in vain ; and the sources of con-
tagion are numerous, and satisfactory enough without any gra-
tuitous supposition of the kind." *

W ith the question of foot-rot being viewed as a contagious
disease we have not now to do ; nevertheless we ought not to
allow this opportunity to pass without stating that we are no
converts to such a doctrine, knowing full well that the spread of
the disorder in a flock depends entirely upon common causes.

Dr. Stephenson, in his ' Medical Zoology,' thus speaks of the
Pulex penetrans : — " One of the most troublesome and noxious
insects of the low regions of South America and the West India
Islands is the Chegoe, a small species of flea, with a rostrum as
long as the body, which often introduces itself into the skin of
the inhabitants, usually under the nails of the toes, where it
deposits its eggs, and produces malignant and occasionally fatal
ulcers. It is a very minute insect, being one-fourth the size of
the common flea, pale reddish-brown, semi-transparent or shining,
with the legs of a pale blueish or lead colour. According to
Ulloa, and his opinion is confirmed by Jussieu, there are two
South American species of this insect. It is described as gene-
rally attacking the feet and legs ; but, according to Capt. Han-
cock, it will penetrate any exposed part of the body. At first
it occasions no farther uneasiness than a slight itching and heat ;
in process of time, however, a small bladder or membranous
sac is formed, containing the nits or ova, which speedily multiply

* ' Sheep : their Breeds and Management,' p. 534.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 39

to such a dcg^ree as to be attended by the most fatal consequences,
rendering amputation necessary, and sometimes causin^^ death."*

In Kiichenmeister's work on animal parasites, it is stated that,
*' according to most authors, the Pulex penetrans only lives as far as
29^ of south latitude in the hot countries of South America, espe-
cially in Brazil ; whilst Goudot found it even in the cold region
of New Granada as far as Bogota, According to the journals
of Count Gortz, besides sand, the flea likes to dwell in the
crevices and joints of ''pig-sties." Again, " Martiny gives the
following notes upon it from Dobritzhofer. This animal is so
small that it can only be seen by sharp eyes with a good light, '
for which reason the seeking for the flea after its immigration is
generally left to children. It perforates the skin down to the
flesh, and, concealed in its little canal, swells up into a white,
globular vesicle, which in a few days may become as large as a
pea, the pain constantly increasing ; this is the abdomen of the
female filled with eggs, or, more correctly, with larvae. Neglect
of the disorder or careless rupture of the vesicle, that is, the
abdomen, by which the young are scattered in the wound, where
they then mine fresh passages, leads to bad sores, to inflamma-
tion of the glands of the groin, to mortification, and, in conse-
quence, to amputation or mutilation of the limbs, or even to
death. The toes are especially attacked by the flea, although
other parts of the body are also visited."

Alluding to the treatment of cases of this kind, Kiichen-
meister says, " When the animal has once made an entrance,
the orifice of the canal, which is marked by a red point, may
be sought, the passage widened with a needle, and the flea drawn
out, but without tearing it. With fresh punctures it is best to
wait a day, until the occurrence of the white vesicle, that is to
say, the swelling of the abdomen with the brood, allows the
animal to be more readily detected. Here also I should think
that touching this vesicle with oil of anise would be beneficial
and kill the flea (because the. respiratory stigmata are situated
upon the abdomen) or compel it to wander out. The cavity
remaining after extraction is treated like a simple wound. In
Brazil they fill it with oil, snuff, or ashes." t

Ixodes Ricinus. — The Tick.

The tick is a true blood-sucking parasite, belonging to the
family Ixodida, the class Arachnida, and order Acarina. The
species or varieties are very numerous, both here and in most
other countries.

* ' Medical Zoology,' p. 193.

t Kiichenmeister's ' Animal Parasites,' vol. ii., p. 92.

40 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Although ticks are met with upon every variety of domesti-
cated animal, as well as upon several wild ones, still the IxodeS'
Ricinus, dog-tick, the Ixodes reduvius and the Ixodes plumheiis
— sheep and cattle ticks — are best known in this country.

These parasites exist in most localities, but they especiallj
abound in light, sandy, and warm districts, where brushwood,
thickets, and plantations prevail. In such situations they remain
secure from injury, and comparatively at rest during the intervals
which elapse between the times of their obtaining a full supply
of blood from the animals they attack. Prompted by hunger^
however, the tick becomes more active, and will then fasten
itself upon almost any animal which may come in its way. To'
effect this it plunges its rostrum — sucking proboscis — deeply
into the skin, and thus fixed it will hang on for dajs together
sucking the blood, until its body becomes distended to eight or
ten times the original size. When filled to repletion it quits its
hold, and again seeks the security of its hiding-places.

It is by no means an unfi'equent occurrence for horses in such
localities, while at exercise at early morn in summer, to be attacked
b}' ticks, and consequently to return to the stables with several
of the parasites upon their legs. Besides animals ticks will fre-
quently attack birds, and they have been also known to occa-
sionally fix themselves on man to obtain a supply of blood. It
is, however, only in very rare instances, and these chiefly in
dogs, that ticks exist in sufficient numbers to give rise to much
irritation or suffering. Dogs taken out for sporting will often
return with a large number of them fixed to their skin. This is.
especially the case with dogs used for rabbit-catching in the
autumnal period of the year, more particularly when Avarm weather
prevails. Ferrets, also, which are employed to drive the rabbits
from their burrows, will be attacked in a similar manner.
Rabbits when killed are frequently found to have several of the
parasites upon them ; and so also, but more rarely, are hares. Not
only is this the case, but weasels and stoats are so generally affected
with ticks, most of Avhich are so small and young, that some
persons have supposed that the parasites are originally bred upon
these and similar wild carnivora by the parent tick depositing its.
ova on different parts of their bodies. It is a somewhat singular
circumstance that ticks, which do not seem as a rule to show any
preference for one part of the body over another, are said to
congregate inside the ears and between the toes of weasels and
stoats. It is supposed by some that these places are selected
by the young ticks, as the animals cannot easily dislodge them
from thence ; while by others it is thought that the ova of the parent
tick were deposited in these sites.

A few years since we met with a large number of young^

as affecting Domesticated Animals.

41

ticks adhering; to the head and face of a horse sent to the College
for examination as to soundness. The animal had been forwarded
from the country to a gentleman in town a few days before, and
the parasites had not been detected until seen by ourselves,
probably in consequence of their small size and brown hue,
which pretty nearly approached the colour of the horse. We
were enabled to obtain many specimens with their rostrum
— sucking proboscis — entire, always a difiicuit thing to effect, in
consequence of the peculiarity of its formation, and its firm
insertion in the skin.

We here insert an illustration of one of these ticks, drawn on
an enlarged scale from a
specimen still in our pos-
session. (See Fig. 2.)

The chief points of in-
terest in the structure of the
tick are well represented in
the preceding illustration.
The barbed or serrated
rostrum, by means of -p^ |^
which, as the barbs point
backwards, the parasite is
enabled, almost without
muscular effort, to retain its
hold of the skin, is clearly
depicted. The externally
barbed rostrum is found to
sheath the mandibles, two
in number. These are three-jointed, " the basal joint being inter-
nal, the second external and long, and the third short and denticu-
late." * The palpi, situated close to the rostrum, one on either side,
are broad and large, and in some specimens would seem from their
near approximation to the rostrum to be capable of emljracing it.
The abdomen, or body of the parasite, is formed of an exceed-
ingly extensile membrane, whereby the creature is enabled to
receive, without inconvenience, a large quantity of blood into
its digestive system to be husbanded for its future wants. The
legs are eight in number, and are attached to the under part of
the body at its anterior half, having their places of attachment
very near each other. They are of nearlv equal size and length,
and are furnished with seven joints. At their free extremities
they are tipped Avith two recurved hooks, having a fan-like
expansion of membrane between them. On the back of the
creature, immediately behind the palpi, a cuticular shield-like

Ixodes Riciiuis. JLiirnified.

* ' Micrographic Dictionary,' Article Ixodes.

42 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

plate, much darker in colour than the rest of the skin, is placed
evidently to give streng'th to this part of the frame. On the
under surface of the abdomen, just behind the last pair of legs,
a circular-shaped respiratory organ exists on either side ; and
a little further backwards a similarly-shaped body centrally
placed, having a slit in its middle, is also present. The latter
named opening is the excretory outlet to both the digestive and
reproductive systems (See Fig. 2).

Although, as has been stated, these parasites are comparatively
harmless in this country, still, in many parts of South America
they attack animals in such great numbers as to give rise to
serious consequences, and often indeed to cause death. At a
meeting of the Microscopical Society in 1842, Professor Busk
exhibited some living ticks which had been sent him from Rio
Janeiro as specimens of the parasite, called by the Brazilians the
CarafQto, which had been from sixty to seventy days on their
passage. At a subsequent meeting of the same Society, Mr.
Busk read an interesting Paper, containing much practical in-
formation, on the subject, from which we make the following
extracts : —

" 1. The name of Carpato or Carapat is given to the insect, in consequence
of its resemblance to the seed of the Eicinus, which has that name in
Portuguese.

" 2. It is common in all parts of South America, where cattle abound,

" 3. It infests cattle, horses, dogs, and sheep.

" 4. It is not found on plants ; and cattle generally become infested with it
when feeding in open and exposed pastures, where the sun's heat is great ; and
it increases most in dry seasons. It is generally supposed that the insect was
not seen in the Brazils previously to an excessively hot and dry summer about
1824 or 1825, since which it has multiplied amazingly. It is remarkable that
cattle feeding in shady pastures and coppices are frequently quite free from the
carpato, but will acquire it by infection from others.

" 5. The mode in which it appears to cause destruction to the animal infested
by it, is by the incessant irritation which prevents the animal feeding or rest-
ing, and in consequence it becomes worn out.

" 6. They first appear on those parts of the skin imcovered by hair, and are
then not larger than a pin's head, but make the part quite black by their
numbers. They adhere so closely, that scraping them off would tear up the
skin. In a short time they increase to the size of a bean, or common tick, as
seen in dogs, and fix themselves promiscuously on all parts of the hide where
covered with hair.

" 7. The same species appears to insinuate itself, in its incipient state, upon
the human body ; but is not known to assume the tick form there. They
adhere tenaciously to the skin, and are believed to introduce themselves below
it. They are very harrassing, and even create soreness and inflammation.
They generally affect persons who have been passing through woods, but are
not known to be ever seen or found on trees or plants.

" 8. Many thousand head of cattle are annually carried off by the carpatoes,
and frequently a scarcity is thus caused." *

* ' Microscopical Transactions,' vol. i., p. S8.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 43

The means at our disposal for getting- rid of ticks are simple
and efficacious. They should not, however, be pulled off, unless
existing in twos or threes, for by such means the rostrum will be
left fixed in the skin, and may give rise to untoward results. Mr.
Blaine, in his ' Canine Pathology,' recommends that the parasites
be clipped asunder with a pair of scissors, when they will, he
says, immediately retract their sucking organ and fall off.

Sponging the skin with a decoction of tobacco, saturated with
salt, will generally cause them to quit their hold. A mixture also
of linseed-oil and creasote, made with one oz. of the latter to
four of the former, rubbed in with the point of the finger around
the part where the ticks are placed, will be effectual for their
removal. They are likewise very easily destroyed by touching
them with oil of turpentine, but it generally happens that they
still retain their hold ; this, however, is a matter of little im-
portance, because after death they can readily be detached, by the
slightest friction, and will then be found to come away entire.

Melophagus Ovimis. — Sheep-Tick.

Although commonly called a tick, this well-known parasite
belongs to a very different order of insects. Its natural history
is so replete with interest that it may be affirmed the scientific
investigator feels an ardour in his researches which is only sur-
passed by the desire of the practical agriculturist to rid his flock
of this troublesome visitor.

The natural history and mode of development of the Melo-
])hagus agree with those of the Hippohoscites, a variety of the
Diptera, although, like many other genera, the Melophagus is
entirely devoid of wings. Its metamorphosis is perfect, but
not completed in the same visible and well understood manner
as in most insects which undergo this change. Thus the larva is
produced from the ovum icithin the body of the parent^ and
changed likewise into the ■pupa before being expelled from her
uterus. Insects undergoing a metamorphosis of this kind are
iGTvaed j)uj,iparous, in contradistinction to oviparo7is and viviparous
creatures, as well as to those which pass thi'ough an ordinarv
series of metamorphoses. A single ovum at a time is transformed
in the manner described, so that Melophagi multiply only by a
series of single births. When first expelled, the pupa is of
a yellowish colour, and easily compressible, but it soon acquires
a brown hue and considerable hardness. It adheres to the wool
very slightly, and principally by the sebaceous secretion of the
skin of the sheep. Fig. 3 gives a magnified view of a pupa, by
which it will be seen that in its general form it is egg-sliaped,
haying, however, one of its ends truncated.

44 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

The sides of the pupa are somewhat flattened, and are marked
Avith twelve distinct depressions, arranged in two parallel lines.
„ ^ Occasionally these depressions are more

strongly developed on one side of the pupa
than on the other. They are described
as being connected with minute apertures
for the transmission of air to the growing
embryo ; but we have never been able to
satisfy ourselves by an examination of the
pupa cases, either before or after the escape
PupaoftheMelophagus. ^^ ^he young Melophagi, that they had
Magnified. ^"J such connection, or indeed that there

is any opening whatever. From the cen-
tral part of the truncated extremity of the pupa a small pro-
jection rises (see fig.), which has a well developed spiracle on
each side of it. These openings would appear to be the chief,
if not the only means by which air can reach the embryo.

In an early stage of the development of the pupa, a similar
projection is to be noticed at the rounded extremity, giving
attachment to a slight membranous thread — the umbilical cord
— by means of which the pupa is connected to the oviduct. In
some pupae this projection remains long after their expulsion by
the parent, but it rarely persists for so long a time as the one at the
opposite end. The young Melophagus when perfected makes
its escape at the rounded extremity of the pupa case by raising
it as an operculum at the place marked by a line in the figure.

The time which is occupied in maturing a pupa within the
body of the parent seems not to have been ascertained ; but seeing
the rapidity with which Melophagi increase during the summer
months, we conjecture that it cannot be very long. Repeated
experiments enable us to express our belief that about fourteen
days elapse between the birth of the pupa and the perfecting
and escape of the young Melophagus from it. We cannot,
however, speak with absolute certainty upon this point, in con-
sequence of the difficulties in the way of its correct solution.
It seems to be necessary for the development of the embryo
that the pupa be kept not only warm, but protected to a con-
siderable extent from the drying effects of the air, conditions
which are provided for by its lying near to the roots of the
wool, and being smeared over with the sebaceous secretion
of the skin of the sheep. When pupae are removed from
the wool for experimental purposes, and kept at about the
same natural temperature, the nearly perfected embryos will
often make their escape in four or five days. After this time,
under ordinary circumstances, the embryos mostly die, so that the
shepherd has it^in his power to destroy many Melophagi by

as affecting Domesticated Animals.

45

simply picking off the pupae and casting tliem away, as 'vvell
as by crushing them with his fingers.

The best account of the structural peculiarities of the jNIelo-
phagus we have yet seen is from the pen of Mr. L. Lane Clarke, in
the January number (1864) of 'The Intellectual Observer.' It
enters, however, into many details of little interest to the general
reader, and therefore we content ourselves by reproducing a
shorter description of the parasite from the pages of the ' Micro-
graphic Dictionary.'

" Melophagus Ovis : antenna* small, sunk in an eye-like cavity
of the head ; eyes small, oval, resembling two groups of ocelli ;
setae three, enclosed in two sheath-like, hairy, unjointed organs
(labial jjalpi), resembling otherwise those of pulex, and arising
from the sides of a triangular labium. Legs robust ; tarsi with
two stout serrated claws, each having at its base a blunt process ;
accompanying the claws is an elegant feathery tarsal brush, and
on the under side of the last tarsal joint is a bilobed pectinate
organ. *

Figure 4, which we here insert, gives a good representation
of the Melophagus when magnified, and shows many of the
peculiarities just referred to.

Fig. 4.

Melophagus Ovinus. Miignifietl.

Article Meluphila.

46 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Melophagi inconvenience sheep considerably ; but we have
never observed any special disease of the skin to be produced
by them. It is, however, imperatively necessary that they be got
rid of, not only for the comfort of the animal, but for the saving
of wool. During the winter few " ticks " are to be seen, but on
the approach of spring they begin to procreate with great rapidity,
so that by shearing-time many sheep, and especially hoggets, will
often swarm with them. They are somewhat erratic in their
habits, and will not only quickly travel from sheep to sheep, but
likewise on to shepherds and others who have the handling of
the animals. They, however, are never found to inflict any
injury on such persons, but merely to produce a good deal of
tickling of the skin over which they roam. Their instinct often
leads them to seek a hiding-place among the hairs of the head,
but even here they do not rest very long, not finding their proper
habitat.

" Dipping" of sheep is the only effectual means of destroying
these parasites, and the earlier in the spring, weather permitting,
hoggets are dipped the better. By this means the destruc-
tion of a numerous progeny by the death of the parent Me-
lophagi is secured, and a corresponding advantage obtained both
for the comfort of the animal and the interest of the flock-master.
Not only are " ticks " and many pupae thus got rid of, but also
lice and acari, the latter of which are the immediate cause of the
disease known as scab. Various mixtures, more or less destructive
to parasites, are employed as baths for sheep, some of which can
scarcely be used with safety. Before, however, we speak of
these mixtures, we purpose to add some remarks on the louse
of the sheep, a parasite by no means so well known as the
" tick."

Trichodectes Ovis. — Louse of the Sheep.

This parasite is common in some districts but very rare
in others. Some very extensive flock-masters seem, indeed, to
be hardly aware of its existence, and in answer to our inquiries
have said that they had neither seen nor heard of it. It prevails
chiefly where periodical dipping is not adopted, and hence it is
often present in mountain-sheep and also in sheep imported
from Ireland. In many parts of the western counties of England
the Trichodectes is by no means rare, and farmers are in the
habit of using sulphuretted oil, and similar agents, two or three
times a year for its destruction. It is known in these districts
as the red louse of sheep ; its head and thorax being of an iron
colour, and its body a pale yellow, marked with dark bands.

Denny, in his ' Anoplurorum Britannia?,' describes its chief
characteristics to be — " head, nearly orbicular ; clypeus rugulose

as affecting Domesticated Animals.

47

Fig, 5.

and ciliated, with stiff hairs ; third joint of the antennjie the
longest, and clavate ; . . . . eyes very small ; . . . . prothorax
sub-conical, truncate before and behind, nearly as wide as the
head ; metathorax transverse, the width of the head ; . . . .
abdomen oblong-; .... legs fulvous, rather thick; tibia* ab-
ruptly clavate and toothed ; tarsi long ; ungues nearly straight."
He also adds, " the only specimen of the species which I have
seen was forwarded by the Rev. L. Jenyns, who took it from
a sheep."

We have been more fortunate in meeting with the Trichodectes,
and have many specimens in our possession, by which we are
enabled to give the subjoined representation of it (see Fig. 5).
The parasite is small, and hence the illustra-
tion is greatly magnified, and thus shows most
of the characteristics mentioned by Denny.

In some cases which have come under our
observation these lice have been present in
very large numbers. They appear to show a
preference for the inner part of the thighs,
and arms, and sides of the neck of the sheep.
Their location in the latter situation often in-
duces the animal to thrust its head between
the bars of gates and horizontal rails to seek
relief from the irritation by rubbing, a cir-
cumstance which occasionally has led to its
becoming fixed and strangled. If the wool
be broken, or short, and detached in places,
and if the sheep nibbles its flanks and other
parts of its body, and scratches its elbows
with the hind feet, as in scab, an examination
should be made, which will often be rewarded by a discovery of
the parasites.

Sulphuretted oil will be found efficacious in destroying these
lice, besides which the use of an agent of this kind during the
winter months is more prudent, as sheep cannot now be safely
dipped. In-lamh eices must also be freed from the parasites in
the same manner. Some persons add an eighth, or even a sixtli,
part of mercurial ointment to the oil, which is, however, ob-
jectionable when much of the surface of the body has to be
dressed over. The increased efficacy of the mixture does not
compensate for the risk which is incurred. Many other agents
might be named for the destruction of these lice, but it is not
necessary to do so ; the utility of sulphuretted oil being so well
established.

Trichodectes Ovis.
Magnified.

48 Ohsei'vations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Sheep-Dipping.

The benefits arising from the clipping of sheep are universally
admitted by flock-owners, not only for the destruction of parasites,
but for the general health and comfort of the animal, as also for
its beneficial effect upon the growth of wool.

Baths for sheep-dipping may be classed under four principal
heads, viz. : — Vegetable decoctions — Arsenical solutions — Sul-
phuretted mixtures, and those, the antiparasitic properties of
which are chiefly due to Alkaline carbolates in combination with
tarry matters. Two, or sometimes more, of these compounds are,
however, not unfrequently mixed together, both by farmers and
manufacturers.

Vef/etable Decoctions. — These preparations are multitudinous,
and also variously combined. The principal agent, however, in
most of them is tobacco, with Avhich decoctions of some one or
other of the following narcotic vegetables, as being the most active,
are mixed in different proportions, viz. : — henbane, monkshood,
figwort, hellebore, foxglove, stavesacre, Sec. As a rule, vegetable
decoctions are safe applications, if not too much concentrated,
and they may consequently be used under circumstances un-
favourable to the employment of arsenical solutions. Notwith-
standing this, they are not in great request in England ; but in
Western Australia reliance is placed almost entirely on a decoc-
tion of tobacco mixed with sulphur, both for the destruction of
ticks and lice, and also as a cure for scab — a disease which often
causes immense losses in that country. The number of sheep to
be dipped in Australia in a day, amounting frequently to several
hundreds, calls for economy of time and labour, and hence
various expedients, quite foreign to us, are necessarily had re-
course to for getting over the work. The following extract from
an article on sheep-dipping in that country by Mr. J. Annand,
who had had considerable experience in the matter, is taken from
the 'Veterinarian' for June, 1862 : —

" A bath is made which contains 1 lb. of tobacco and 1 lb. of sulphur to
every 5 gallons of water, and into this the animals are plunged. The mixture
is always kept as warm as the animals canbtr^r it, avoiding of course extremes.
Coppers are erected to boil the tobacco, after which the decoction is placed in a
large dip or receptacle, and the sulphur is then added. These dips are constructed
of various sizes, and sunk in the ground. The heat of the mixture is kept up
by the addition of hot liquor, and partly by the bodies of the sheep themselves.
The dips should not be too large, as there is then a greater difficulty in keeping
up the temperature of the fluid. If too small, however, there is a danger of
the sheep striking on the bottom, when precipitated into the receptacle from
the pen above. A good size is that which will hold ten or a dozen sheep com-
fortably at one time.

" I enclose a sketch of the dip, yards, &c., which will assist your readers in
understanding the method of using the bath.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 49

" Havinp; filled the batli, the first lot of sheep are sometimes thrown in one
by one until it is full ; but mostly they are precipitated from the pen situated
above it by ti[)piug the floor. INIen are placed around the bath, who keep the
sheep moving about, and occasionally, by means of crutches with which they
are furnished, they pusli the heads of the sheep under the water. The sheep
are thoroughly soaked in three or four minutes.

"The door communicating with the 'run' is then lifted up, and the
sheep pushed through it into this passage. On the door being again let down
the dip is ready for anotiier lot. The sheep find their way from the ' run ' into
the draining-yards, whicli are paved and slightly inclined. These yards being
two, the upper one is first filled, and tiie gate then shut. The lower one is
next filled, and when this is done the slieep in the upper yard are allowed to
go away, those in the lower one taking their place. By this plan we ensure the
sheep being thoroughly drained, and also save a good deal ol' the dipping mixture.

"It is necessarj'' to add fresh liquor from time to time, to keep up both the
heat and proper strength, and also to supply the place of that which has been
used. The amount required will depend very much upon the length of the
animal's wool. The sulphur is kept floating in the bath b}' the agitation of
the fluid, by which means it settles in the wool, acting, I have no doubt, as
the chief preventive of scab. When this disease exists it is usual to dip the
sheep again at the end of a fortnight ; but in my opinion one thoroiKjh soaking
is sufiicient, if done in Itot liquor. The tobacco is best boiled in bags, as it is
then easily removed from the copper when its strength has been extracted,
ieo/" tobacco is, I think, the best ; but all the common sorts are used. Many
of the settlers grow their own tobacco, but rather more of this is required, it
not being very strong."

Our experience in clipping sheep would have led to the con-
clusion that by such a summary process as here described many
of the animals would be destroyed ; but we are assured that such
is not the case. Doubtless some are sacrificed, but the numljer
cannot be considerable, or the plan would soon be abandoned.
Indeed, we have been informed that in several parts of Australia
even less care is taken than is mentioned by Mr. Annand, and that
the animals are forced so hastily in small lots into pits which are
sunk in the ground and filled with decoctions of tobacco, that they
often plung-e completely under the fluid. One thing at least we may
learn from these proceedings, namely, that sheep may be totally
immersed in a tolerably strong decoction of tobacco with but little
risk to their lives. We are not, however, to conclude that a bath
of the strength named could be safely employed, supposing it to
be made with prepared tobacco of commerce. Australian leaf
tobacco is employed, and the quantity used would appear to show
that it is not very strong. With the shag tobacco of commerce
we have rarely ventured, in making a bath, to use more than an
ounce to an ounce and a half to the gallon of water. Tobacco,
as is well known, varies greatly in strength, and hence it is
always " better to err on the safe side." For these reasons farmers
should always make their own tobacco-water, and never pur-
chase it of the tobacco manufacturers. It frequently happens
that such water is valueless, or nearly so, although it is so dark
coloured as to mislead the purchaser.

VOL. I. — S. S. ■ E

50

Observations on Parasites and Parasitic D

iseases

The annexed wood-engravings— Figs. 6 and 7— are illustrative
ol the dippnig bath and pens referred to by Mr. Annand. They
will be found to materially assist in explaining the details of the
process.

(S^

Fig. 6 shows a side-view of the yards, " dip," &c.
iA. Yards into which the sheep are first brouo-ht

B. The "dipping pen." This is furnished with a moveable floor, e,
secured by a bolt, which being withdrawn causes the floor to tilt, and
precipitate the sheep into the bath beneath.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 51

c. " Decoy pen," into which 2 or 3 sheep are placed to induce the others to
go forwards.

F. The dip or batli containinu; the mixture.

G. The sliding-door, communicating with " the race."
H. Chain-puUe}' and weiglit for raising the door.

1. 1. The race leading to tlie draining-yards.

Fig. 7 ; ground plan.
The references are the same from " a" to "i" as in Fig. G.
J. The lower draining-yard.
K. Upper draining-yard.

L. A channel to receive the superabundant fluid, and carry it hack into
the bath.

Not only in Australia, but likewise in America, tobacco-baths
are in much rec [uest. A few years since an attempt was made to
introduce into this country an " extract of tobacco," manufactured
by the " Southdown Company " of Boston, Mass., and patented by
Mr. Jaques, for the making of " sheep-dips." It met, however,
with little encouragement. The samples of the " extract " which
we saw were nicely manufactured ; but the article could not
compete in price with our common sorts of the drug, especially
when the quantity to be used — an ounce to the gallon — was taken
into consideration. The " extract " is, we are told, much used
in America, and with the best results.

Arsenical Solutions. — The cheapness and efficacy of these
compounds have led to their very general use by flock-masters.
When properly prepared and rightly used, although containing
a deadly poison, they are nevertheless safe even for the dipping
of lambs as Avell as aged sheep. Great improvements have been
made in these compounds of late years, and few of them now
contain arsenic, excepting in the form of an arsenite of potash.
This preparation is equally as destructive to parasites as arsenic
itself, but less likely to be injurious to the sheep, as its greater
solubility prevents its subsiding to the bottom of the dipping tub,
thus to be brought in contact with the skin of those which are
dipped when the fluid is nearly consumed.

So many accidents have occurred from the careless manner
in which arsenical solutions are dealt with on the premises of
farmers, that it is a serious question whether they ought not
to be entirely superseded by non-poisoning compounds. A little
more than a year ago ten persons were poisoned at a farm
at Ashby St. Ledgers, near Rugby, from a cause of this kind,
and one of them, a labourer, died. Some of the arsenic, in an
unexplained manner, got mixed in a pudding made by the
mistress of the house for herself, family, and servants, she having
on the morning of the same day assisted her son in preparing the
sheep-dipping compound.

Numerous instances are also recorded of the poisoning of

E 2

52 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

animals from a want of clue care in disposing of the superfluous or
unused quantity of the mixture after the dipping is finished. As an
example we may mention that an influential member of the Royal
Agricultural Society lost twenty-two pigs in the summer of 1859^
from the shepherd emptying the spare liquor into a yard, where the
pigs were kept. The Aveather at the time was very hot, and the
animals, driven by extreme thirst, drank some of the fluid, and
soon fell a sacrifice to its poisonous effects. We have alsO'
known of cases where nearly all the ducks on a farm have been
killed by the superfluous " sheep wash " being emptied into a
muddy-ditch to which the birds resorted. It is likewise no
uncommon thing for fish to be poisoned, if it be thrown into
a pond, or even into a running stream.

Another serious drawback to the employment of arsenical
solutions is the injurious effects which are produced on the hands
and arms of the men engaged in the dipping. The nails of many
of them are almost destroyed thereby, Avhilst in some unhealthy
sores and ulcers of the arms follow the day's work. The men
also are far too careless in protecting the lower parts of their
persons from the action of the poison, often neglecting to put on
an additional covering so as to keep their clothes from being
soaked thi'ough with the fluid. Such serious ill-consequences
have now and then resulted from this, as even to endanger life.

jNIuch more might be said against the use of arsenical solutions
for the dipping of sheep, but in an essay of this kind it is
unnecessary to add to these instances of the danger which is
incurred.

A useful formula for the making of an arsenical bath is as
follows : Take of arsenic h lb., soft soap ^ lb,, carbonate of
potash 4 ozs., and water 20 gallons ; boil the arsenic and the
potash together in one half of the water, and dissolve the soap in
the other half; afterwards mix together for use. This will make
a bath sufficient for 20 sheep. It should be used moderately
warm, as it will then be found to be more efficacious in the
destruction of parasites, and less hurtful to the sheep, than
plunging them into the fluid when cold.

Sulj)lnu'etted 3Iixtures. — These mixtures in their simple form
being free from any deleterious agents find favour Avith many-
farmers, for the dipping of ewes while suckling their lambs.
They should hot, however, be depended upon for the destruction
of ticks, unless combined with a narcotic vegetable decoction ;
that of tobacco being probably the best. The advocates of their use
contend that it is only necessary to keep the sheep in the sulphur
bath rather longer than the ordinary time, to have its full Ijenefit
produced, and that any failure which may arise is due to a Avant
of precaution. We have often used a simple sulphuretted mix-

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 53

tore, and have very rarely found it productive of sufficient amount
of good to warrant our recommendation of it. It is true that if
the sheep are examined directly after coming out of the bath, the
ticks, from their half-drowned condition, will appear to be dead
or nearly so ; but on the drying of the wool most o'f them will
i^vive and become as active as ever.

A common sulphur bath is generally composed of soft soap,
\^ lb. ; carbonate of potash, ^ lb. ; and sulphur vivum, 2^ lbs. ;
boiled together for about half an hour in 20 gallons of water.
A small portion of the sulphur is dissolved by this process, but
nearly the whole of it is still suspended in the fluid. The un-
dissolved portion quickly sinks to the bottom, and consequently
a mixture of this kind requires to be often stirred up. The
quantity named will be sufficient for 20 sheep.

As before stated, it is absolutely necessary that the sheep be
kept in the bath for four or five minutes, which makes the pro-
cess a very tedious one Avhere many have to be dipped in the day.
It is also important that the mixture be used warm, or it will be
even less effective. A sulphuretted bath is valuable, however, in
long existing cases of scab, as it cleanses the skin, tends to break
up the crusts which exist, and also to destroy some of the acari.
Nevertheless, even under these circumstances, it is to be regarded
as preparatory to the employment of more potent remedies for
the cure of this affection. The addition of sulphur to an arsenical
compound may be an advantage in some exceptional cases of
parasites, but as a rule the arsenical preparation is sufficiently
powerful of itself not to need any addition of the kind.

Carbolic Acid Compounds. — Baths for sheep-dipping, in which
alkaline carbolates with tarry matters form the chief anti-
parasitic agents, are of modern introduction. These compounds,
although they may not so quickly destroy ticks as some of the
arsenical mixtures, bid fair, nevertheless, to supersede them, and
also many others of the older preparations, for the reason that
they are innocuous to the sheep themselves, and at the same time
very efficacious in the destruction of parasites in general. Some
<jf the carbolic acid compounds possess a value also far beyond
better known and more common agents, viz., that of protecting the
sheep for a considerable time against the attack of flesh-flies.
This prophylactic power depends chiefly on the peculiarity of
their odour, which is similar to that of tar, and is long retained
in the wool. Sheep dipped in these mixtures will be found to
be feeding, and resting in comfort ; while others, not so treated,
will be incessantly tormented with flies : an advantage so obvious
that it would alone suffice to recommend these compositions
to the favourable notice of the flock-master. Some persons
take objection to them in consequence of the tarry matter im-

54 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

parting a brownish colour to the wool. This, however, is only a
temporary evil, if one at all, as the stain is easily removed by
washing- ; indeed, it will be found to^ fade away of itself after a
few weeks exposure to the ordinary changes of weather. The
best of these compounds usually consist of carbolate of soda
with tarry matters. They mix easily with Avater, and do no
injury to the hands and arms of the sheep-dippers.

We refrain from giving any special formulae for the making
of carbolic acid compounds, because we lack practical expe-
rience of their relative value when mixed in varying proportions
of their several ingredients. Besides it is far more to the
advantage of the farmer to purchase from a respectable manu-
facturer than to attempt the making of them himself. Both
the value and safety of very many sheep-dipping compositions
depend on the proper mixing and preparing of their several
ingredients ; and the appliances at the disposal of the farmer are
too often unequal to such an undertaking.

Having thus epitomized the subject of sheep-dipping mixtures,
we pass on to make some observations on the proper period for
dipping sheej:), and also on the occasional ill-consequences which
arise therefrom. The proper time for dipping will very much
depend on the kind of sheep which are kept, and also on the
system of sheep-husbandry which is carried out on the farm —
things which are in a measure regulated by locality and soil. In
some districts almost of necessity " breeding sheep " are kept,
and " fatting sheep " in others. Besides this, all breeding flocks
are not managed alike, any more than the same system, of
fatting is observed by all feeders of sheep.

In some parts of the country ewes are kept for breeding until
they are quite worn out by age. In others about a third of the
flock is changed every year by the bringing in of the ewe lambs,
and letting out a corresponding number of the old and less
valuable ewes ; while in many the entire flock is changed every
year by first fatting and disposing of the lambs, and afterwards
of the ewes. It is therefore apparent that no one time can be
fixed upon as being suitable to meet the requirements of each
of these cases.

Where the system of buying-in ewes every year is adopted,
we prefer to dip them just before their being put to the ram j
say in September, This not only frees them from ticks, but also
from acari, and thus affords security, to a great extent, against
the scab during the succeeding winter months. Ewes kept
on the farm year after year are perhaps best dipped subse-
quent to weaning time, in July. If, however, from the multi-
plicity of parasites it becomes ahsolutchj necessary to dip them
while suckling their lambs, care should be taken not to use an

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 55

arsenical compound. In the latter case, tlie lambs also must be
dipped at the same time, or little or no good Avill result, for the
ticks will soon travel from the lambs back to the ewes, and infest
them as badly as before. The dipping of lambs is mostly deferred
until they are weaned ; but the late Lord Spencer tritely remarked
in his comments on this practice, as recommended by Mr. Cleeve
in an essay on " Diseases of Sheep," published in the first
volume of the Society's Journal, that " It is better to dip the
lambs immediately after the ewes are shorn, than after weaning.
The shearing the ewes destroys or removes the ticks which were
upon them, and the dipping destroys those which were upon the
lambs ; whereas, if it is postponed till the lambs are Aveaned, the
wool of the ewes will then have grown long enough to shelter
ticks which have come upon them from the lambs after the time
of shearing." *

Sheep intended to be fatted during the winter on turnips, &c.,
are best dipped in the autumn or latter part of the summer ; but
hoggets, which had been dipped as lambs, and which are to be
grass-fed during the succeeding summer, should be dipped the
second time in the spring after coming from their winter keep.
A neglect of this frequently causes much loss of wool, and not
unfrequently attacks of scab.

Persons who in the spring of the year purchase sheep of different
kinds, and in various quantities for summer grazing, should always,
if possible, dip each lot directly the animals arrive on the farm, cer-
tainly before they are mixed with the former lots. If this be not
done the loss, both in wool and mutton, may prove a serious matter
from an attack of scab, it being well known that this disease
frequently breaks out among sheep thus brought together.
Farmers who merely breed, feed, and sell out from their own
flocks have fewer difficulties to contend with, and hence, as a
general rule, they content themselves by dipping their sheep after
shearing time, when the wool is somewhat grown ; a practice
which may suit their peculiar case, and theirs alone.

Whatever time is selected, and this must necessarily vary in
almost every individual instance, care should always be taken to
avoid extreme hot and dry, as well as showery weather.

As can be easily understood, sheep are very liable to be
destroyed by the use of poisonous dipping mixtures, from the
deleterious agents being absorl)ed into their systems from the
general surface of the skin. In many instances we are ready to
admit that absorption is the cause of death ; but after several
years' experience in the matter, we are persuaded it is far less
frequent than is generally supposed.

* ' Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,' vol. i., p. 329.

56 Ohservations on Parasites and. Parasitic Diseases

Mischief results more often from liasty dipping, and the neglect
of proper precautions subseqv;ent thereto, than from absorption of
the poisonous compound. When sheep are placed in the bath,
and are necessarily held in an unnatural and restrained position to
prevent their splashing the mixture about, the greatest care should
be taken that their heads are not thrust under the fluid. Without
due caution, it often happens that the animal, while struggling
to overcome the restraint to which it is subjected, involuntarily
and almost momentarily swallows a portion of the fluid. Hence,
there are many instances where death results from asphyxia very
shortly after the sheep are set at liberty ; a portion of the fluid
having entered the larynx. Such animals usually retire a short
distance, lie down, have a distressing cough, breathe heavily, and
quickly die. Occasionally, also, it is found that several of the
sheep die a day or two subsequently to their having been dipped,
from the local effects of the fluid upon their throat and fauces.
In these cases, the corrosive action of the arsenical solution
forbids all hope of cure. In a far greater number of instances,
however, the poisonous draught enters the stomach, and destroys
the animal by its action on the svstem.

A more frequent cause of death, however, is that of imperfectly
squeezing the superfluous fluid from their fleeces, and allowing
the animals to go almost at once on to a piece of pasture land,
where they not only stand and drip, but often lie down, and thus
leave a considerable portion of the arsenical mixture on the grass.
Nor will the sheep refuse to eat such grass, but rather show
a preference for it while it is wet, more especially in very hot
and dry weather. In such a way as this, scores of sheep are
often poisoned.

Sheep have also been poisoned now and then from sucking
their own or each other's fleeces while still wet from the bath.
This, likewise, occurs generally in hot and dry weather, when
they have not been supplied with water, although unable to
obtain any perhaps for many days before, in consequence of the
particular position of the fields in which they had been kept.

Very fatal results have also followed from the sheep being
overtaken by a drenching rain within a few hours of being
dipped. In this way the dipping compound has been washed
out of their fleeces and poisoned the entire herbage on which
they were feeding. All these things may be easily guarded
against by proper luanagement. Their prevention is so obvious
that it need not be specially mentioned in a paper of this kind ;
it being sufficient for our present purpose that we draw attention,
in a concise manner, to the several causes which are likely to lead
to a loss of sheep from dipping.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 57

Pediculi ; Anoplura (Denny). — Lice,

Under the generic term of Pediculi we recognise those Epizoa
commonly known as lico. These parasites constitute the order
Anoplura of Denny, being unarmed and without wings. From
their great variety they are necessarily divided into several
families, genera and sub-genera.

The primary division of the Anoplura is into the Haustellata
(suckers) and the Mandihidata (masticators), of which we have
examples in the genus Hamatopinus and Trichodectes which
affect domesticated animals. The former of these is easily
distinguished by its elongated and narrow head and retractile
sucker ; and the latter by its broad and short head and strong
mandibles. (See Figs. 8, 10 and 9), which represent the Jhcma-
topinns of the horse and the pig, and the Trichodectes of the ox.

The chief characteristics of lice are that they do not undergo a
metamorphosis, have six legs, are without wings, and often also
without eyes, or possess two only, which are of simple construc-
tion in comparison with those of other insects.

Although lice do not pass through a regular metamorphosis,
nevertheless, in the progress of development from the em-
bryo to the perfect insect, they are found to cast their skin,
and often more than once, acquiring each time a more com-
plete form of the body, and especially of the limbs. In these
particulars these epizoa agree with fleas and some other parasitic
insects. Kiichenmeister says that " the males are fewer in number
than the females ; their last abdominal segment is proininent and
rounded off, and furnished on its dorsal surface with a valvular
opening, beset with an abundance of asperities, which serves at
the same time as an anal opening and poms (jenitalisy

^' Tlie females, which are more numerous and larger, appear
deeply notched at the apex of the last abdominal segment, and,
as it were, with two lobes, between which is the anal aperture,
Avhich is surrounded with numerous hairs."*

The two genera, Hcematopinus and Trichodectes, which we
have described, not only exist separately, but often together on
the same animal ; but hitherto we have only found the Hanna-
topinns Suis on the pig, and the Trichodectes Oris on the sheep ;
nor does Denny, in his ' Monographia Anoplurorum Britannia*,'
allude to any other louse as being met with on either of these
animals.

Whether the pig and the sheep are entirely exempt from
all other varieties of lice, we do not take upon ourselves to
decide. Asa rule, however, each distinct species of animal has

* Kiichenmeister on Animal Parasites, vol. ii., p. 77.

58 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

its own particular variety of louse ; and it is a singular fact that
the parasite shows little or no disposition to leave the body of its
host for that of any other. By long cohaljitation, however, the
louse of one animal Avill occasionally travel to another of a
totally different species, and not only live upon its new victim, but
speedily propagate, and thus produce an attack of phthiriasis.
The introduction of a lousy animal among a number of healthy
ones of the same species is sure to be followed by all of them
becoming sooner or later affected. The rapidity with which
this sometimes takes place is very remarkable ; but it appears
to be always accomplished much more slowly during the winter
than the summer months. This circumstance is easily accounted
for, as the parasites are less active in the winter, both in their
ordinary wanderings from animal to animal, and also in their
powers of reproduction. It is also not improbable that some
kinds of lice leave the body of one animal for that of another
much earlier than others, and this under precisely the same
circumstances.

" No man, perhaps," — writes Denny, — " ever carried his researches on the
habits of the louse to a greater height tlian Lceuwenhoek, who allowed his
zeal for science to overcome the disgust which such creatures generally produce.
In order to ascertain the rapidity with which a louse can propagate its species,
he tried the following experiment which I shall give in his own words : —

" ' The louse is so prolific an animal that it is a common vulgar saying
that it will be grandfather in the space of 24 hours. Tliis I could never believe
to be the fact, but rather that it would require nearly a month for the offspring
of a louse to be capable of producing young of its kind; and in order to make
proof of it by experiment, 1 at first proposed to hire -some poor child to wear a
clean stocking for a week, with 2 or 3 female lice in it, and well-tied or secured
at the garter, in order to see how many young ones woirld be produced in that
space of time ; but I afterwards considered that I could make the experiment
wdth much more certainty on my own person, at the expense only of enduring
in one leg what most j^oor people are obliged to suffer in their whole bodies
during all their lives. Hereupon I put on one leg, instead of a white stocking
I usually wear, a fine black stocking, choosing that colour because I considered
that the eggs and the young lice thence proceeding would be more easily dis-
tinguished upon it. Into tiiis stocking I put 2 large female lice, and cutting
another black stocking into long slips, I bound it over the first, above the knee
to prevent their escaping. After wearing this stocking six days I took it off,
and found one of the lice had laid 50 eggs, and the other about 40. I opened
the one which had laid the 50 eggs, and found in its body at least 50 more,
and who knows how many eggs it had laid before 1 put it into the stocking,
and how many more eggs it might have in its body which my sight could not
reach ? Havins; w^orn tlie stocking ten days longer, I found in it at least 25
lice of three different sizes, some of which I judged were 2 days old, others a
day old, and the rest newly come out of the egg.'

" To give a clearer conception of the great increase of these animals, let us
suppose a person to have about his body 2 male lice and as many females, and
that the females in 12 days' time lay 200 eggs ; and that 6 days afterwards, out
of those eggs, are produced 100 males and 100 females ; and that this young
brood in 18 days' time are grown to a size to propagate their kind, and that
each of these young females in the space of 12 days more lays 100 eggs, and

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 59

from which in G days' time, other young lice arc produced : upon this su])po-
sition the number of lice springing from 2 females will amount to 10,000.
Thus it appears that the 2 females may in 8 weeks' time he grandmothers, and
see 10,000 lice of their own offspring, which unless reduced to actual demon-
stration would seem incredible ; and who can tell whether in the heat of sum-
mer these creatures may not breed in half the time I have mentioned? "

Whetter these hypotliescs with regard to the reproductive
powers of the louse be absolutely correct or not, we see quite suffi-
cient in the experiment itself to explain the fact of one lousj
animal quickly contaminating another, and often an entire herd.
Leeuwenhoek's experiments being made with lice of the human
subject, the parasites found in him a proper host, and consequently
his conclusions with reference to the deposit of eggs, and the time
necessary for the production of the^?'s^ hatch, would be correct.
Whether similar experiments, of transposing lice of the horse or
ox, to other horses or oxen, as proper hosts, would give a result con-
firmatory of Leeuwenhoek's suppositions of the rate of increase,
remains to be proved. As yet we have had no opportunity of
testing this by direct experiment. We have, however, very fre-
quently collected the ova of the different kinds of lice, and
adopted means of keeping them under daily observation, and at
a temperature equal to that of the animal body, so as to deter-
mine the period of incubation. The results seem to show that
the time Avhich elapses between the deposit of the ova of the
IIcBmatopiiiiis Bovis, for example, by the parent louse, and the
birth of the young ones, is about twelve or fourteen days. We
have frequently known a hatching to take place as late as the
fourteenth day, but never after that time. On obtaining ova
from the bodies of animals for a purpose of this kind, it is found
that some of the young will be hatched even on the first or second
day afterwards, and others at different intervals up to the date
named. This variation in the time is due to the circumstance
that the ova when taken are not all of the same age, and conse-
((uently the young lice are in different stages of development.
It is almost impossiljle to distinguish the fresh-laid eggs from
the older ones, so that correct conclusions as to the period of
incubation can only be arrived at from the Jatest births, the ova
yielding these young lice having been laid by the parent pro-
bably on the very day they were procured.

The matured ova are expelled singly from the uterus of the
parent, and each one in succession is attached by a glutinous
material, which is voided with it, to the lower part of a hair,
near to its root. Sometimes three or four ova will be found
adhering to the same hair ; but generally only one is met with.
Each c^^ is so fixed as to leave the larger end free, which is always
directed towards the point of the hair. The a^'g is also attached

60

Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Fig. 8.

to the hair in such a manner as to form a very acute angle with it,
leaving just sufficient space to allow of the young louse grasping
the hair with its claws as it maks its escape from the e^^ by raising
the operculum at the larger end, thus securing its safety against
falling off and being lost. The empty ova-cases will remain
in sitit for a considei-able time after the birth of the young lice,
and sometimes lead to an incorrect conclusion that the animal
is still covered with "nits." They are, however, easily distin-
guished from perfect eggs on a slight examination.

Lice of the Horse.

It has already been explained that two varieties of the louse
are common to the horse — the Hcematopinus and the Trichodectes.
The former of these is much the larger. It is 'also darker in
colour and has a longer body and head than the other. Fig. 8
gives a very faithful representation of this louse, and shows the chief
peculiarities of its conformation, which will be the more apparent
if the figure be compared with that of the Trichodectes of the ox,
inserted at p. 63. The H(Bmatoj)inus Equi more frequently locates

itself among the stiff hairs of the
tail and mane than the Trichodectes,
but it will nevertheless be often dis-
tributed over the entire body of the
animal. It is not easily dislodged
from its location in consequence of
its sucking -organ being inserted
into the skin for the purpose of ob-
taining its food. For this reason
Hoimatopini produce considerable
and persistent irritation ; and the
horse will rub himself so violently
to get rid of his tormentors as very
frequently to produce extensive ex-
coriations of the skin. From the
same cause his health will soon
suffer, and he will quickly fall away
in condition. Horses which are
neglected as to grooming and feed-
ing, or such as are suffering from
ill health, are, as is well known,
A'ery susceptible to attacks of lice.
Heematopini, however, are often met
with under the opposite circumstances ; and hence search should
be made for them in obscure cases of cutaneous irritation. We
have frequently found these lice on horses which were at the time

Hocmatopinus Equi. Magnified.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. (Jl

in good condition, and under the best stable management, and
consequently not suspected to be lousy.

Trickodectes Equi. — The broad-headed louse of the horse shows
a preference for the body, and, unless present in very large
numbers, seldom locates itself in the hair of the mane or tail.
Its pale colour, small size, and square form, at once distin-
guish it from the Hceynatojmms. Being a mas"ticator, it is
unprovided with any sucking-organ, and consequently it does not
fix itself to the skin although it lies in close contact therewith. It
feeds upon the desquamating epidermis, and also upon the increased
exudations that come from the skin as the result of the irritation it
produces. Being fond of warmth, the Trickodectes rarely quits the
surface of the integument during cold weather, so as to become
visible by travelling up the hairs. If, however, the affected
animal be placed in the sun for only a tew minutes, these lice
will speedily scale the hairs and appear on the surface, often in
such numbers as to surprise the groom or carter. Horses
affected to this extent are sure to be in impoverished condition,
besides suffering considerable cutaneous irritation.

Poverty, exposure to inclement v»^eather, innutritions food, a
dirty state of skin, and similar causes, predispose animals to an
attack of these lice ; and consequently they are often present on
horses which are turned out during the winter months. Colts
whose health is impaired, and especially if they are the subjects
of chronic disease, are, however, even more susceptible to them.
Confirmatory of this we give the following case which has recently
come under our notice.

A thorough-bred filly, between two and three years of age, was
admitted into the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College in
consequence of a diseased state of the absorbent system, which had
existed for several months. Being unbroken she had not been
I'egularly stabled, but had had the run of a paddock in which a shed
was placed. It had been noticed that of late she had suffered from
cutaneous irritation, but the true cause of this was not suspected.
Very shortly after her admission an examination of the skin
showed that she was literally covered from head to foot with lice.
Although diligent search was made, not one of the Hccmato/nni
could be found ; the epizoa all being of the genus Trickodectes.
The care and attention which this filly had received were suf-
ficient to make it more than probable that it was not from neglect,
but solely from impaired health that she had been attacked with
these parasites.

The destruction of lice is not difficult ; but to efTectually free
an animal of them it is necessary that their ova — the "nits" —
be killed as well as the parasites themselves. For this purpose the
antiparasitic agent must be again applied to the skin after an in-

62 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

terval of five or six days, and in some instances even a third
application of it will be required after a similar lapse of time.
Oleaginous preparations are very effective for the purpose, espe-
cially if mixed with sulphur and oil of turpentine, but they are
sometimes objectionable on the score of cleanliness, if used upon
our better bred horses. A good mixture of the kind is composed
of pure neat's-foot oil, ten parts, oil of turpentine, five parts, and
sulphur, two parts. In using this compound care should be taken
that the animal be dressed from head to foot with it, or many of
the parasites will escape unharmed.

Decoction of tobacco made by boiling from two to three ounces
of strong shag-tobacco in a gallon of water, and when cold, satu-
rating it with common salt by adding about three pounds of this
agent to the gallon is a clean, safe, and very effective remedy
when properly applied. The same may also be said of a satu-
rated solution of the sulphide of potassium, which should, however,
be applied to the skin as soon as made.

Mercurial and arsenical preparations ought never to be used
upon the horse, so large a quantity being required to cover his
skin. They possess no advantages over more simple and less
dangerous agents in the destruction of lice, while they have often
been known to produce serious ill-consequences, both by their
local action and by their being absorbed into the system.

Both varieties of the louse of the horse are also common to the
ass. They are by no means unfrequent dwellers on this animal,
as may be inferred from the great privations he has so often to
endure, and the sad neglect to which he is exposed. If well fed,
however, and kept only moderately clean, the ass does not appear
to be more susceptible to these parasites than the horse, if indeed
he be so much so.

Lice of the Ox.

Both Hcematopinus and Trichodectes are met with on the
ox ; the former perhaps more frequently than on any other
domesticated animal. The Hwmatopinus, however, chiefly in-
habits the furrows of the skin on the upper part of the neck and
shoulders, to which it is often confined for many weeks together.
Its existence here is not necessarily connected Avith ill-health,
nor with lowness of condition ; on the contrary, it is met with on
cattle that are gaining flesh, and going on perfectly satisfactorily.
Especially is this the case during the winter, when the cattle are
in the fodder-yards. So common, indeed, are these lice at this
time, that specimens may be procured from nearly every herd
Avhich is examined ; both young and old animals being equally
affected. During this time of year, also, the lice are very inactive,
and show but little disposition either to leave their favourite spot,

as affectuu) Domesticated Animals. G3

or to travel from one animal to another. Hence we find that some
animals will be affected and others not, although they are all herd-
ing together, and are necessarily fed and managed the same. On
the approach of spring, however, the ejnzoa lose their inactivity,
become more prolific, travel to other parts of the body, and pass
freely from one animal to another. Evidence of this changed
state of things is soon afforded by the irritation which they pro-
duce, leading the cattle to rub themselves bare in many places,
particularly about their shoulders and buttocks. This nude state
of skin is not unfrequently the first thing to attract the attention
of the owner, and lead him to a knowledge of the fact that the
animal is lous}'.

The Hcematopinus Boris is larger than his congener of the
horse, and darker in colour, being usually of a deep brown hue.
The depth of its colour will, however, depend very much on the
amount of blood it contains. It remains firmly fixed by the
insertion of its sucker into the skin for so long a time together,
thfit it would appear to use this organ for the purpose of holding
on, even after its digestive system is filled with blood.

Trichodectes Bovis. — We here give an illustration of this louse,
not only to show its peculiar form, but as
a type of the genus as occurring among
domesticated animals. Its broad head and
pale or yellowish colour at once serve to
distinguish the parasite, no matter upon
what part of the body, or upon what ani- . x

mal it may exist. ^i-v^' \

We have met with these lice in great 04%
abundance upon young cattle — yearlings \

in particular — and especially those that

had been badly kept after being weaned. i^

Such animals are generally low in flesh, 1^?-

and have a most unhealthy appearance. . i3

They suffer much cutaneous irritation, and 1

are so unthrifty that all the food given
them seems to be of no avail in improving ^r

their condition. It is also during the win- , - ^,

ter half of the year that these lice abound ; Trichlkctes Bovis.

and it is usually in the spring, from their Mao-nified.

rapid increase, that attention is given to

rid the animals of them. No part of the .body is exempt from
their attack, and very often an animal will be covered all over
with the parasites, causing him to rub and lick himself so con-
tinuously as to produce extensive excoriations of the skin.

When these lice are present in no very large numbers,
some persons trust to the shedding of the coat as the spring

64 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

advances for freeing the animals from them, it being well known
that with the fall of the hair many of them, together with the " nits,"
will be cast off. This fact is due to the circumstance, before
explained, that these lice live among the hair, feeding upon the
desquamating epidermis, and not upon the blood of the animal,
and hence they are not fixed to the skin. It is not an un-
frequent remark of such persons, " Oh ! a few lice wont do any
harm, they'll soon be gone when the bullocks get to grass."
Dependence, however, should never be placed on the fall of the
hair, for it often happens that the animals will continue to be
lousy throughout the whole summer, and come back in this
state to the yards in the following autumn or winter very little
improved in condition.

In the application of remedies for the destruction of lice on
cattle, even a greater necessity exists for avoiding all arsenical or
mercurial compounds when they are present on the horse. Cattle,
as is well known, are in the habit of licMnrj themselves wherever
their tongue can reach, and not only so, but they will also freely
lick each other. In this way scores of animals have been poisoned
when dressed with these and similar deleterious agents. One
notable case came, many years since, under our immediate obser-
vation, in which no less than eleven yearlings were killed out
of thirteen by their owner having used upon them an arsenical
compound which he had procured from a druggist.

In the ' Tiansactions of the Veterinary Medical Association '
for 1841-2, a case is recorded by Mr. H. Hutchinson, M.R.C.V.S.,
East Retford, in which fifteen bullocks were poisoned, one of
which died, in consequence of being dressed with "a solution of
arsenic and soft soap." In the ' Veterinarian ' for 1843, Mr. C.
Lauder, M.R.C.V.S., Dumfries, relates an instance of thirty-two
animals being washed with an arsenical sheep-dip, eight of which
died. An allied case is published in the ' Veterinary Record,'
for 1846, by Mr. E. Musgrave, M.R.V.S., Hereford, in which
two deaths occurred out of " twenty-eight cows, yearlings, and
calves " that were dressed for lice.

Many other instances of the kind might be mentioned, as
scarcely a year passes without similar mishaps. We will, how-
ever, content ourselves by giving one other which is replete
with information and somewhat of a singular character. The
case is related on the authority of Mr, R. Bowles, M.R.C.V.S,,
Abergavenny, who furnished us with the particulars a few years
since. It appears that a notion prevails in many parts of Wales
that when cattle are affected with lice, it is only necessary to
smear the base of their horns Avitli strong mercurial ointment, and
the parasites will quickly disappear. Acting on this vulgar error,
a farmer obtained some ointment and used it pretty freely upon

as affecting Domesticated Animals. 65

the liorns of his cattle — some fifteen or sixteen in numlK-r. On
the following day the greater part of them were found to be
seriously ill, and the assistance of Mr. Bowles was sought. On
investigating the case, !Mr. Bowles found that the animals were
poisoned with the mercurial ointment, ivhich they had cleanly
liched from off each other s liorns. Notwithstanding all the care
which was given to the cases, nearly one-half of them proved
fatal, and the rest of the animals were saved with very great
difficulty.

Having said sufficient, we trust, by way of caution in the use
of these poisonous compounds, we shall conclude our remarks by
stating that the same remedies which have been recommended
for the destruction of lice on the horse are equally efficacious
when applied to the ox. They should be used in the same
manner, and at the same intervals of time. For cattle, how-
ever, which have to be dressed all over, the oleaginous com-
pound, mentioned at p. 62, is often to be preferred to any other.

Lice of the Calf.

As an addendum to the preceding remarks on the lice of the
ox, we may state that Denny has described a variety of the
Hamatopinus as existing on the calf, which differs in several
respects, but particularly in the length of its abdomen and the
thickness of its limbs from the louse of the older animal. He
says " that the only two examples of this species which I have
examined were kindly forwarded to me by Rev. L. Jenyns, who
found them upon a calf. Mr. Jenyns named them vituli, and I
have no doubt they are the species so named by Linnaeus and
Fabricius. It may appear somewhat strange that a young animal
should have a distinct species of parasite, which is not found
upon its parents ; but as far as I am able to judge, such is the
fact."*

In the course of our investigations we have often sought for
this louse, but hitherto without success. We have also had
numerous specimens of lice obtained from calves sent us from
different parts of the country, and these have always proved to
be of the kind common to the older animals.

Louse of the Sheep.

We insert this heading in this place for the sake of complete--
ness, as we have in another pait of this essay fully described the
kind of louse met with on the sheep. The Ilccniafopinus, as .has
been stated, is unknown as being parasitic to this animal, while
the Tricltodectes is also rare, excepting in particular localities.

* ' Monograpliia Anoplurorum Britannia',' p. 32.
VOL. I. — S. S. F

66

Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

Our description of the Trichodectes Ovis will be found at page
46 et scq., and also an illustration of the epizoon, to which we
beg to refer the reader.

Louse of the Pig.

One variety only of the two kinds of lice, so frequently alluded
to in these pages, is met with on the pig, viz. the Hamatopinus
Suis. Subjoined is a magnified illustration of this epizoon, which
will help to convey an idea of its formidable appearance.
Its great size, broad and flat body, thick ungues, and dark brown
colour at once suffice to distinguish the HcBmatopinus of the
pig from that of any other animal. Most of these peculiarities
will be observable if the figure be compared with Fig. 8, which
represents its congener of the horse, both being drawn to the
same scale.

Fig. 10.

HcEinatopinns Suis. Magnified.

On many farms these parasites are but rarely seen, while on
others they are of rather frequent occurrence. The cause of their
absence seems not to be well understood, as it does not appear
to depend on greater cleanliness nor on a better system of manage-
ment. Store pigs are mostly affected, but we have seen the lice
at times on fat ones. The use of barley-straw for bedding, as well
as its almost exclusive employment in the fodder-yard, is gene-
rally thought to encourage their attack. This idea is not impro-

as affecting Domesticated Animah. 67

bable, for it is an admitted fact that pigs, and especially young
ones, do not thrive satisfactorily if made to sleep on barley-straw,
and any cause which will impair tlie health of an animal will at
the same time predispose it to an attack of parasites.

Denny, in his remarks on this louse, says that it " is found in
great numbers on swine, but it does not appear so generally
spread as might be expected from the dirty habits of these
animals. It most frequently occurs on those fresh imported
from the sister isle. It was many months before I could obtain
a single example. I had applied to both farmers and pig-
butchers, neither of whom seemed to approve of the idea which
I had conceived of their pigs being lousy., but referred me to
those of the Emerald Isle as being sure to gratify my wishes —
forgetting, I suspect, that Irish pigs come to this market to meet
English buyers. I accordingly visited a colony just arrived,
when I most certainly met with a ready supply, but here they
were confined almost entirely to lean animals, and wherever I
found a pig fat or healthy, no game were to be seen.

" In walking this species uses the claw and tibial tooth with
great facility — which act as a finger and thumb — in taking hold
of a single hair. The male is smaller than the female, with the
abdomen shorter, sub-orbicular, and the segments lobate. The
e^g^ or nit, is three-fourths of a line in length, of a cream-
colour, and elegantly shagreened, oblong, and slightly acumi-
nated, surrounded by a lid, which, when the young insect is
ready to emerge, splits circularly." *

The Hcematopinus Suis shows a preference for the upper por-^
tion of the neck, and the parts behind the ears, and also those
between the fore-legs, where the skin is comparatively thin ;
being less frequently met with on the sides and hind-quarters
of the animal, except when present in large numbers. It
will generally be found firmly fixed to the skin, drawing its
supply of blood by its haustellum, which organ is conical in
shape and very prominent in this species. The irritation
produced by the parasite is considerable, and cracks and sores
of the skin often result from its presence ; but the pig seems to
regard this much less than many other animals. As a rule,
however, even when existing in great abundance, Htcmatopini
would appear to cause an unthrifty state of the animal rather
than simple cutaneous disease. Like the Hcematopini of the ox
these lice are very often seen on pigs during the winter months
when they are confined to the fodder-yard, disappearing on the
approach of warm weather when the. animals have a greater
range and can " wallow in the mire."

' Auopluvonuu Uritivnniiic,' p. -35.

F 2

(38 Observations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

The frequent existence of Hccmatojnni in association with an
inflamed and sore state of skin, led, in the days of ignorance and
superstition, to the belief that the parasites buried themselves
beneath the integument, and after a time made their exit from
the body through the various organs. Thus Youatt remarks in
his work on "The Pig," that "Eric Viborg states that these
vermin sometimes burrow their way into the flesh, and come
out through the eyes, nostrils, or mouth, or have even been known
to be voided in the urine." *

It is not difficult to rid pigs of lice, but, for the reasons before
advanced, it is necessary to repeat the anti-parasitic agent two
or three times. The sulphur liniment mentioned at page 62 is
to be preferred for use on the pig, and besides this none other is
likely to be required. Although the epizoa may be apparently
confined to one part of the bod}-, it is better to dress the animal
all over, to make sure of the ova being destroyed, as well as the
parasites themselves.

Lice of the Dog and Cat.

Varieties of the Hannatopinus and Trichodectes are the only lice,
so far as we are aware, which have yet been found on either of
these animals, the former being more rare than the latter. Dogs
affected with lice suffer a sfood deal of itching of the skin,
rhey usually fall away in condition, and have a very un-
healthy appearance both of the skin and hair. Young dogs
are, upon the whole, more often affected, and not unfrequently
they become so when suffering from distemper, or when just
recovering from this disease. We have, however, frequently
met with lice on dogs which were in the most healthy state,
and receiving the greatest care and attention as to feeding
and management. Indeed, the pet dog of the drawing-room
will now and then be attacked by these parasites ; although
more frequently it is the cur, which is made to inhabit dirty
sleeping-places and is neglected in every possible Avay, that suffers
from them. The irritation produced by lice often gives rise to
the notion, among persons who are not very conversant with the
diseases of the dog, that he is the subject of mange. A very slight
examination, however, by leading to a detectiem of the parasites,
will suffice to show the true cause of this irritation.

These same remarks are equally applicable to the cat, except-
ing perhaps that this animal is less frequently affected with lice
than the dog.

The means which are employed for ridding other animals of
lice will be found effective with these, but for many years we have

* ' The rig,' p. D'J.

as affecting Domesticated Animals. GO

ailoptfd .1 very simple oxpoclient for the purpose, wliich lias
generally proved most successful. It consists of dusting the
skin over with common snufT, and two or three days afterwards
well washing the animal with soap and water, and, as soon as
the skin is dry, re])eatiiig the application. A second or third
dressing of this kind will suffice to kill all the parasites and also
their embryos, if adopted with due regard to the period of
incubation of the ova. Attention must likewise be given to
a restoration of the animal's health, from whatever cause it may
have suffered, or he will be exceedingly liable to bo again
attacked by these loathsome parasites.

Acarus Folliculorum — Animalcule of the Hair Follicle.

This parasitic animalcule belongs to the class Arachnida, and
represents, according to Professor Owen, " the lowest organized
form of the class." It has received various names both here and
on the continent, the chief among which are Demodcx FoUicn-
lorum, OwEX ; Entozoon, afterwards Steatozoon Follicnloriaii,
A\'iLSON ; 3Iacrogaster Flatyims, Miescher ; Acarus Follicu-
lorum, Simon and Siebold ; and Simonea Folliculorum, Ger-
VAIS, the last name being given in compliment to Dr. Simon of
Berlin, who discovered it, in 1842, in his investigations of the
disease known as Acne in man. Kiichenmeister states that it
was found by Henle at about the same time in the hair follicles
of the external ear, but that Henle in describing it mistook " the
tail for the head, and the feet for sucking discs composed of
pads."

In 1843-4 Mr. Erasmus Wilson fully investigated the structure
and habits of the entozoon, which led to his ultimately giving
to the world the best account of it which we possess. He
thus prefaces his description : — " After perusing the account
of the Steatozoon Folliculorum, as given by its discoverer. Dr.
Simon, I determined to proceed to a verification oi his dis-
coveries, and being provided with an instrument probably
superior to that employed by Dr. Simon, I have succeeded in
making out certain points of structure that had escaped his
observations. I was not long in obtaining subjects; almost
every face I met with supplied me with abundance, and the
difficulty seems to be, not to find the creature, but to find any
individual, with the exception, according to Dr. Simon, of newly-
l)orn children, in whom these animalcules do not exist." *

In the course of his researches Mr. Wilson discovered several
of these parasites, seemingly identical in every respect with those
of man, in the secretion of the Meibomian glands of the eyelid of

* ' Skin Disease?,' p. 728, 4th edit.

70 Ohservafions on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases

a horse which had been furnished him by my late colleague, Pro-
fessor Morton. Kiichenmeister also records that " Oschatz found
a similar Acarus in the glands of the eyelids of a sheep. It
was, however, broader generally, and especially in front." *

Besides these instances, we are not aware that the animalcule
has yet been met with in any other domesticated animal, ex-
cepting the dog, in whom, however, it is not uncommon. In the
latter part of 1843 Mr. Topping — a preparer of objects for
the microscope — led by the publicity given to this question,
sought for the entozoon in^the dog, and found it in great abun-
dance. The dog belonged to himself, and had long been the sub-
ject of a " pustular affection " of the skin.f Mr. Topping attributed
the disease to presence of the animalcules, an opinion which
was, however, combated by Mr. Wilson.

Since 1843 the parasite has been very frequently found in the
dog; and in 1849 M, Leblanc, ' Medecin Veterinaire,' Paris,
described a disease of this animal ending in marasmus, and de-
stroying the dog, in about two months, which he attributed chiefly
to the existence of these creatures in immense numbers in the
folli'cles of the skin.

In 1851 we also obtained a large number of these parasites
from a dog affected with skin disease, which was accompanied
by extensive desquamation of hair and cuticle, and a discharge
of a dark-coloured unctuous fluid from the follicles. It was sin-
gular, however, that in this instance the dog showed little or no
disposition to scratch himself, as is ordinarily the case in skin
diseases. We preserved several of the parasites at the time,
and give the subjoined illustration of the entozoon from speci-
mens still in our possession.

Compared with the fully developed Aca-
rus FoUiculorum of man, the body of that
of the dog is scarcely more than half as
long. This shorter length, however, does
not seem to be due to immaturity, for in all
the specimens which we have examined we
have not met with a single deviation from
this rule. With the exception of this
diminished length of body, there is so close
an identity in these acari that a description
of one applies equally to the other. Accord-
Acarus FoUiculorum.— Dog. ing to Erasmus Wilson the acarus of man
MaguifieJ. varies in its entire length from l-64th to

1-1 35th of an inch, and in the length of

* ' Kiichenmeister,' vol. ii. p. 17.

t A paper relating to this discovery vras read before the Microscopical Society,
Dec. 20th, 1843, by Mr. A. Tulk. See ' Physiological Jourual,' 1843-4, p. 124.

as affectinfi Domesticated Animals. 71

its abdomen from l-88th to l-227tli, while in both extremes
the width of the thorax is the same, viz. l-555th of an inch.

" The animal is divisible into a head, thorax, and abdomen, the whole of
tliese imrts being well and distinctly marked. The head represents in form a
truncated cone flattened from above downwards, and directed obliquely down-
wards from the anterior part of the trunk. It is composed of 2 large lateral
organs, termed by Simon, ' maxillary palpi,' and of an intermediate triangular
organ." . , . "The thorax, which is the broadest and tliickest part of the
animal, and somewhat tun-shaped, is flattened on its nnder surface. It is
composed of four broad segments, wliich are free, and joined by a connecting
membrane on the dorsum and sides of the creature, but are continuous inte-
riorly with the broad and strong plastron which covers the whole inferior
surface of the thorax. The segments are somewhat convex in their antero-
lX)sterior diameter, particularly at the upper part, so that the outline of the
chest in this situation has the a])pearauce of being slightly fluted." . . . "The
segmented structure of the thorax permits of a certain degree of movement iu
this part of the creature. The legs, which are eight in number, are connected
with the sides of the plasti-on ; each segment of the thorax sustaining one pair
of these organs. They are conical in figure, the base of the cone being broad,
and its apex obtusely truncated, and furnished with 3 finger-like claws. P]ach
leg is composed of 3 segments." ..." The legs are all of the same size." . . .

" The aidoinen is somewhat variable in point of length. It is flattened on
its under surface, and convex above, and tapers gradually from its base to its
extremity, where it terminates iu a rounded ])oint. It is composed of a series
of extremely narrow annular segments, which overlap each other from before
backwards." ..." The annulated structure of the abdomen, which is here
described, permits it to move with considerable freedom and to curve in any
direction."

Mr. Wilson closes his elaborate description of the anatomy of
the Acarus by remarking, " In the abdomen I have traced the
outline of an alimentary canal, and have seen it terminate by an
infundibulifonn extremity at the anus. The transparent cell-
like organs seen in the abdomen of the perfect animal I regard
as dilatations or convolutions of the alimentary canal ; and a
dark-brownish mass in the commencement of the abdomen I
consider to be the liver. I have been unable to discover any
sexual differences in the numerous examples which I have exa-
mined." *

The existence of these parasites in connexion with a dis-
eased condition of the skin seems not to be admitted in the
case of man ; but it is a vexed question among comparative
pathologists as to whether they do not give rise to a diseased
state of the skin of the dog. It is well known that the dog is
remarkably prone to skin diseases, several of which have but few
features in common ; and our experience — as has been shown —
would go to prove that one at least of these affections may depend
upon these parasites. Gruby has even stated that the Acari of
man will induce disease of the skin if transferred to the dog ;
and that having once succeeded in so transferring them, he

* Wilson on ' Skin Diseases,' 4th edit., p. 729, et teq.

72 Ohscrvations on Parasites and Parasitic Diseases, S\-c.

found that, " in the course of two years, they had increased so
enormously that they occupied every cutaneous follicle, and the
dog^ became in consequence quite naked." The correctness of
these deductions has, however, been doubted by both 'Simon
and Neal.

Professor Weiss, of the Veterinary School of Stuttgart, holds
opinions in accordance with our own, i.e., that disease of the
skin of the dog is occasionally induced by these parasites. He
relates cases in point, and says that the Acari ultimately destroy
the hair-producing organ, so that hairs do not again grow on the
bald places. It appears also that he considers it just possible
that the Acari may travel after long habitation from a diseased
to a healthy animal ; still, as he observes, it is easy to deny the
contagiousness of the affection induced by their presence. He
adds, that in Haubner's experimental attempts to propagate the
malady by transmission of the animalcula*, a failure occurred in
both instances.

In concluding our remarks on the Acarus Folliculorum, we
may state that the destruction of the parasite is effected with
great difficulty, arising chiefly from the circumstance of its being
enabled so easily to make its way to the extieme ends of the
hair follicles and sebaceous glands. Success in destroying the
Acari depends very much more on the manner in which medicinal
agents are used than on the agents themselves. The most potent
destroyers of their life may prove perfectly inert unless pro-
perly applied. Nothing short of a thorough rubbing in of whatever
be used will suffice ; and not only so, but it is necessary for the
agent to be applied again and again. An ointment made with half
a pound of lard, two ounces of tar, and four ounces of sulphur
should be well rubbed in before the fire, or in the sun to assist its
penetration into the follicles of the skin. The unguent should
also be allowed to remain on the skin for two or three days, and
more fi'iction applied daily. When washed off, some carbonate
of potash should be used with the soap and water so as to
thoroughly cleanse the animal. The skin should then be dried,
and recourse had again to the unguent. This treatment must be
repeated for at least three or four times.

Beyond topical applications none are absolutely required, as
success depends exclusively upon the destruction of the Acari
and their ova. It should, however, be borne in mind that many
of the parasites may survive and yet no evidence of their existence
be observed perhaps for several weeks. For this reason the treat-
ment should be repeated at certain short intervals, even in those
cases where the dog appears to have recovered.

(To he continued.')

( 73 )

V. — Lois-Weedon JF/icaf-Growinr/ icifh Ilorsc (or Sfeavi) TilJaf/e.
By John Algernon Clarke.

First of all, let me state the results of " Lois-Weedon wheat-
growing " icith the spade. And I would premise, that no one
personally acquainted with the Rev. Samuel Smith, Vicar of
Lois-Weedon (near Towcester, Northamptonshire), no one who
has visited the spot, inspected the crops, and examined the soil
(as I have done more than once), doubts U)V a moment the abso-
lute truthfulness of all Mr. Smith's published statements of cost
and produce. So that my account may be received without the
least suspicion of high-colouring or suppression of unfavourable
facts.

The experimental " clay piece," 3 acres in extent, had for the
most part a staple only 5 inches deep, resting upon an impervious
yellow and blue clay of the oolite formation. There is nothing
peculiar in the aspect, situation, proximity of woodland, and so
on, to render this plot an unfair sample of the land in that neigh-
bourhood ; and judging from the surrounding district, which con-
tains hundi'eds of acres of apparentlv precisely similar soil (much
of it with even a deeper staple), a fair rental for it would be about
27s. per acre. Twenty years ago, it was vmder old pasture, the
turf of which was pared and taken off the land. The ground
was ploughed the full depth of the 5-inch staple for oats, followed
by vetches. After this came the first " Lois-Weedon " wheat,
sown in triple rows, with wide fallow spaces between. These
intervals were dug by hand, one spit deep, so as to bring up to
the surface only a few inches of the raw clay. The second year,
these well-stirred and horse-hoed fallow intervals bore the three-
row stripes of wheat, and the stubble-row stripes were dug in ;
and so on, fallow intervals and wheat rows succeeding one another
in alternate years. In the third and fourth years the spade went
down a little deeper, and so, gradually and regularly for four
years more, till a depth of IG to 18 inches was reached. Mr.
Smith then cultivated for the next four years with oidi/ a sinyle-
spit digging ; and, in 1858, again returned to the trenching two
spits deep, with a fresh inch or so of clay. At the present date
(1865), the digging has not yet reached "1 feet in depth ; a great
portion is from ]8 to 20 inches deep, little more than it was ten
years ago. So that Mr. Smith has not been compelled to go
deeper for each succeeding cro]) ; and not a grain of any species
of manure, animal, vegetable, or mineral, has ever been given to
the land.

The average produce of the first eight years, beginning with
the harvest of 1847, was fully 34 bushels per acre — the whole

74 Lois-Weedon Wheat- Growing

space witliin the bounds of the field, whether fallow or cropped,
being' included in the measurement ; for the next four years
(1855-1858), the yield averaged 38|^ bushels per acre ; and in
the next four years (1859-1862) the average was 33 bushels per
acre. The crop of 1863 gave no less than 40 bushels per acre —
the same great yield as in 1855, and again in 1858 ; and the last
harvest (1864) has produced 32 bushels per acre, this being the
eighteenth wheat-crop in annual succession. The average yield
of the last ten years has been 35f bushels per acre, just If
bushel in advance of the average for the previous eight years.
Mr. Smith reports that in the present month, January, 1865, all
is going on well with the triple rows, " never better."

As to quality, Mr. Smith has usually made the price of the
best red-wheat in his market ; and the quality of his latter crops
has surpassed that of the earlier.

The effect on the land after all this annual corn-bearing, is that
a good brown heavy loam, to a depth of 1^^ to nearly 2 feet, has
taken the place of the 5-inch staple and raw clay subsoil ; so
that the field was pronounced by the Deputation from the London
Farmers' Club in 1860, to be " as fine wheat-land as any man could
possibly desire," and to be " worth 45^. per acre." The owner
says it is now worth "at least 60s." So far from "exhaustion"
being within view, the ground has become ameliorated and
amazingly enhanced in value.

Mr. Smith's yearly profit upon his outlay has also been large,
though he reckons the grain at a low market-price, and sets a
very moderate figure upon the straw, which is all carried away
and applied as manure to other land.

With such protracted and astonishing results before their
eyes, English agriculturists will surely be unworthy of their
reputation if they allow the system to die without a thorough
testing, in different districts, and on a broader scale. Not that
they should slavishly copy the Lois-Weedon manipulation ; for
though the spade and fork have been employed in establishing a
principle, the magic power lies in the tillage, not in the tools ;
and on the great scale, horse or steam power must perform the
labour of cultivation. If Mr. Smith's principle be sound, the
farmer has only to modify Mr. Smith's particular practice,
adapting it to the means and requirements of ordinary business.

The jmnciple developed by the Lois-Weedon experiment is,
that " intercultural tillage " (that is, the pulverization and aeration
of the ground between the rows of a growing crop) promotes the
growth of the crop. In this lies the essential difference between
bare-fallowing half the area of a field in narrow stripes, dis-
tributed at intervals between wheat-bearing stripes, which col-
lectively occupy the other half, and bare-fallowing one-half part

mth Horse (or Sfea77i) Tillage. 75

of a field, while the other half grows wheat. The fact being-
established that at Lois-VVeedon the deep and perfect husbandry
of hand-tools and horse-tools together has produced, upon this
principle, most profitable crops for eighteen years in succession
it remains for the farmer to ascertain whether a less perfect
culture by traction-implements only, will afford results, smaller
of course, but of proportionate value, when the smaller expense
is taken into account.

I for one resolved to find out whether the Lois- Weedon "prin-
ciple" — as distinct from the Lois-Weed on "practice" — would
retain its virtue out of its own neighbourhood, and on another
soil ; and I am of opinion that my conclusi(m on the point has not
attracted that attention which it deserves.

My district — the South Lincolnshire " marsh " country — is
noted for its fine crops as well as rich pastures ; but the particular
field of my experiment is by no nneans peculiarly fertile. The
soil is an alluvial loam, rather adhesive, but readily ploughed at
6 inches depth by a pair of horses. This staple rests at 1 to 2-^
feet depth, upon raw " silt " or muddy sand anciently deposited
by the tides ; but which, on most of the farm in cjuestion,
possesses none of the exuberant fertility of some marine warps.
Low-lying, flat, and naturally wet, it is partially relieved of
excessive moisture by a few thorn under-drains — which are
resorted to in this "dead level" tract, devoid of the "fall"
necessary for scouring out permanent pipe-drains. This piece, of
ten acres in extent, is considered about the worst bit of ground
on the farm ; average yields of wheat on this occupation —
under liberal management, with well-manured root and spring-
corn crops and cake-fed clovers — have varied from less than 30
up to 40 imperial bushels per acre, according as the harvests
may have been meagre or abundant.

Such is the nature of the land. But I must call attention also
to its condition at the time of commencing operations. The
" Ash-tree piece " (though trees are few there) was under the
plough before 1 was born ; and had been last fallowed with
a turnip-crop in 1850. Its latest dose of any species of manure
whatever Avas 12 cartloads per acre of farmyard-dung, applied
for beans in 1854. A good wheat-crop followed in 1855;
succeeded by barley (not a heavy crop) in 1856. Nobody in
our neighbourhood would have expected to get a crop of wheat
directly after this barley — unmanured barley, which itself had
followed unmanured wheat, on ground not naturally very prolific
or in high condition. If the new culture could raise one decent
yield upon such a piece as this, the " principle " would clearly
be established ; and, accordingly, my first year's experimental
wheat was g-rown here in 1857. But this is not all : other dis-

76 Lois-fJ'eef/on WItcat-Grmoinp

advantages combined to enliance the severity of my test. One-
third of the field was foul with couch, all of it was much pestered
with buttercups ; and beginning operations too late in the season,

1 had no time to clean it. Such was the weather, that the barley-
stubble, ploughed and harrowed, gave me only a seed-bed of
hard clods ; yet, as it was now the end of October, and thin-
seeders enjoin sowing in September, I could not wait for rain,
and roughly drilled my wheat-rows so thinly that the drill-man
said " sowing like that was mocking the land."

Details of my husbandry shall be given by and by : what I
wish to show first is, that the method adopted DID pkoduce

PAYING CROPS UNDER CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH PRECLUDED THE
GROWTH OF PAYING CROPS BY ORDINARY MANAGEMENT. In May

the wheat was of a good colour, but nearly two of the ten acres
showed a wretchedly thin and bad plant ; while everywhere the
hoe encountered plenty of thistles, sow-thistles, and buttercups.
An early harvest (1857) brought me a light, poor crop, with very
short straw ; but the ears were exceedingly good, some having
(J4, and a few 75 grains each. The vield (of red " Rattling
Jack ") was a trifle over 30 quarters, or 24 bushels per acre, and

2 pecks of light tail — the natural weight of the best being (JO lbs.
per bushel. The head-corn was sold at 505. a quarter ; and
deducting the merchant's charges of " porterage and discount," I
received for the grain exactly 11. 65. lO^f/. per acre. No manure
being returned to the land, of course the straw must be included
as a portion of the produce ; and to be within the mark, I valued
it at only 5^. per acre, making my total receipts 11. Ws. \0^d.
per acre. The total expenses for every operation by hand, horse,
or machine, for seed, rent, tithe, rates, and income-tax, amounted
to 6/. 4^. 2d. ; thus leaving me a profit, even on that bad crop, of
1/. 7.?. 8^fZ. per acre.

If the ground had not been " exhausted " before, it certainly
must be in a low condition now : dare I try wheat again, as a
fourth cereal crop on the same ordinary land, without an ounce
of any manurial dressing ? I could certainly put in my seed-
corn in more reasonable style ; but as a set-off against this, I
could scarcely hope for another good wheat-season like that of
1857. Any way, a crop worth reaping, raised after such a
flogging course, would thoroughly prove the potency of my in-
tercultural tillage.

Well ; after cleaning outmost of the couch, " goose-grass," and
butter-cups, 1 sowed (as before) 31 pecks on the same 10-acre
field, in the beginning of October. This seeding was at the
rate of 3 pecks per acre ; but as from the fallow intervals left,
there were only half the usual number of wheat-rows, the seed
lay in each row with the thickness of 6 pecks per acre.

u-itit Horse (or Stann) Tillage. 77

February and JNIarcli broug^lit the longest dry time that liad l)con
known for manv years; and rolling- and pressing were diligently
followed up on all tlie wlieats of the farm, except my unlucky
experimental portion — this proved a great disadvantage. In
April, however, my wheat was very forward and luxuriant,
though chickenweed made much work for the hoe, and in the
latter part of May, I actually had to "top" one considerable
portion of the crop with the scythe, because there the stalks and
broad flags were too high, rank, and heavv. In June, the wheat
Avas elbow high, the flag an inch broad : and at harvest, the
straw was 5 to 5^ feet long, many 6-feet straws also being found.
The ears were small : it was a " bad yielding year " in the whole
of this district, whatever it may have been in other parts of
England ; yet my crop gave exactly 30 bushels per acre of
dressed corn (head and tail), with nearly a bushel of light tailing
besides. The head corn, "Browick red," weighing 60 lbs. per
bushel, was sold at 395. per quarter ; my receipts for grain being
11. 4^. 9c?. per acre. Not wishing to make out a profit by
attaching a factitious value to the straw (which, in this neigh-
bourhood we may not sell) I put down \0s. per acre for it ;
bringing up my total receipts to 11. 14.s'. Or/, per acre. The total
expenses of every sort came to 6/. Ws. \0d. ; leaving the balance
of profit, 1/. 2.S. llf/. per acre.

Still there had been no manurial application whatever : and to
demonstrate yet further that my new management had something
in it, I again sowed as before the same 10-acre field in October,
1858. This was the fifth white-straw crop in yearly succession,
without manure ; yet in June, my memorandum was, " wheat
looks beautiful, never so well before; all standing, except here
and there near the ash-trees, where it is very heavy." At
harvest the straw was 5 to 6 feet long, but the ears not quite so
fine as in the year before. From the bulk of the stack, the yield
was estimated at 4 quarters per acre; but the thrashing-machine
told a different tale, the produce was a little over 30^^ quarters,
or 24i bushels per acre of head-corn and tail, with l-^- bushel
of light tail. My tillage had fully answered ; because the land
had produced a croj) heavier than any of its predecessors.
But the terribly adverse season of 1859 had refused to developo
and ripen the ears as was expected : in fact, so bad and defective
in quantity, weight and ([uality were all the wheats in my
district — both light and heavy-strawed crops — that 24 to 28
bushels an acre were usual if not average yields. The head-corn
(" Browick red)," weighing 60 lbs. per bushel, was sold at 386'.
a quarter; my receipts for grain being 5/. 18.?. 4^r/. The straw,
estimated at 2 tons per acre, 1 valued at \2s., making my total

78 Lois-Weedon WlLeat-growing

proceeds 6/. IO5. 4i(/. per acre. The total expenses were
5Z. I85. 04c?. ; leaving me a profit of 125. 4f/. per acre.

Hoping- for a more fortunate summer, I again drilled my
experimental field. In May, with a singularly backward spring,
the plant was thin and much nipped by frosts and winds, but
it tillered very much, and was more forward than any other
wheat on the farm. Hand-hoeing, when the ground was very
hard, injured the wheat ; and another operation with the horse-
cultivator buried such long portions of the green rows that I
anticipated, from this cause, a loss of at least a couple of bushels
an acre. In June, after long I'ains and cold winds (a hurricane
had much damaged all the wheats), my wheat was 40 to 45
inches high, with stout stems, broad flags, and many ears out,
some of them very large. I considered the crop a fair one,
though not heavy, and looked for " say 30 bushels per acre if
the wheat ripen well." Such was the entry then made in my
book. In the latter part of July, after great rains, the wheat was
5 to 5^ feet high ; the ears long and large, many of them 6 or
6| inches in length, with "twelve sets" of spikelets. Owing
to very cold weather, deluges of rain, stormy winds, and ex-
tremely cold nights, the wheats of the district ripened late and
very imperfectly ; and I was doomed to suffer the disadvantage
of another specially bad season for my experiment. Light
though lengthy ears betokened what the yield would be ; and
the thrashing-day gave me but 22 bushels per acre of dressed
corn, and 2^ pecks of tail. Though " Emperor " red, it was of
such mean quality as to weigh only 55 lbs. per bushel, and was
sold at 445. 6^. per quarter.

The grain realized 6/. 85. Id. per acre ; the crop, however,
was so bulky that the straw was estimated at 2 tons (as in the
previous year), and valued at 125., making the total receipts
6/. 155. Id. per acre. Deducting the total expenses, bl. IO5. 2hd.,
I had left a profit of 11. 5s. 4:^d. per acre, even for this unlucky
crop of 1860. Remembering that this was the sixth cereal crop
in annual succession, and the seventh amiual corn-crop since the
land had been manured, I considered the experiment conclusive
in favour of the Lois-Weedon principle. Undertaken with land
in an improper condition, begun at a wrong time, and unfortunate
in meeting with two most disastrous seasons (locally, whatever
they may have been in other parts of the kingdom) " the stripe
wheat " had nevertheless brought me a profit, owing to the loxc
cost of cultivation j)ertaining to the sy stein.

My average yield for the four years had been 25| bushels
of dressed corn, and 3J pecks of light tail per acre ; and, sold at
an average of 425. lOifZ. per quaiter, it had left mc a fair profit.

loitk Horse {or Steam) Tillat/c. 79

Had I taken the 10 acres in hand after the mamired beans instead
of when iclicat, and the harleij followinrj that, had lowered the con-
dition of the soil — so that, in ordinary course, it would liavo come
in for a replenishing manured root-crop — it is self-evident that I
must have reaped far better crops, even with the same; unfortu-
nate seasons. But if my four crops had not only enjoyed this
advantage, but had also been smiled upon by fair average
summers, I should indubitably have boasted of my 32 to 3(5,
perhaps 40 bushels per acre, instead of the pitiful average of 25;}.
No reasonable mind will reject this conclusion ; for my second
crop, in spite of its place in the rotation and the unpropitious
nature of the season, did yield 30 bushels per acre. It is
demonstrated, then, that I could have grown three or four wheat-
crops in annual succession that would have improved my " fair
profit " into something handsome ; or, in case markets had been
much lower than they were, would still have rewarded me with
that " fair profit."

It is possible that hand-trenching by the spade to a depth of
18 or 20 inches, would enable my field to produce good wheat-
crops in perpetuity ; but as my horse tillage extended only to a
depth of 9 or 10 inches, and effected but a rough pulverization
compared with that of the fork, I did not expect a long series of
crops. My experiment simply proves that several paying

WHEAT-CROPS CAN BE GROWN, ONE AFTER THE OTHER, WITHOUT
ANY MANURE, PROVIDED THE LAND BE IN FAIR WHEAT-GROWING

ORDER AT THE BEGINNING. How this lesson Can be best
applied in farm practice, I shall consider presently.

To test the endurance of the system still further, I ventured
upon another sowing ; but not being able to get to work before
November, I drilled rather more seed. However, the terrible
frost of that winter (1860-1), killed most of the plant on half the
field, so that it had to be ploughed up — too late, however, for
the attempted crop of mixed peas and oats ; while the remainder
was so thinned, that the crop, though left till harvest, was not
thought worth measuring separately. Such was the termination
of the experiment ; but the land was not by any means " beggared-
up " by my drafts upon its fecundity. For, fallowed and manured
for turnips in 1862, it bore a heavy and splendid crop — which
was, for the most part, eaten on the ground. A couple of acres
stood for seed in 1863 ; while the rest produced a good crop of
oats. These were seeded down with red clover ; the turnip-seed
plot was sown with winter tares ; and both clover and tares were
mown in 1864, yielding a very heavy crop of hay, in spite of the
unprecedented drought. The clover-lea is now lying unbroken
till the coming spring, as it may be wanted a second year to

80

Lois- IVeedon Wheat-Growinfi

supplement the deficiencies of the almost dried-out young
" seeds."

I will now describe the modus operandi and verify my " totals
of expenses." The wheat is drilled in triple rows, the " spaces "
(A A A A Fig. 1) being 10 inches each, and the " intervals"
(B B) 40 inches each ; so that from the middle of one wheat-
stripe to the middle of the next is 5 feet. While the crop is
growing, the intervals are subjected to a fallow culture ; and the
second year's wheat-rows are sown on what Avere the fallowed
intervals of the first, as represented by the waved lines in the
figure.

First
Crop.

yecoud
Crop.

A A

A A

A A

It has been said by objectors to this "stripe system " of wheat-
growing, that, as the rows do not follow upon the identical places
occupied by last year's stubble, the course of cropping is not
really one of " wheat after wheat," but alternate " dead-fallow and
wheat." Then why not sow one continuous half of your field
wheat, and bare fallow the other half alternately ? Because
5 acres in that case would have to yield as much produce as
10 acres on my method. My 10-acre field did yield in 1858
30 bushels per acre, measuring wheat-rows and fallow spaces
together. If you choose to maintain that the wheat really
occupied only half the area, then my yield was 60 bushels per
acre. The fair inference from my experience is, that with the
land in anything like reasonable condition at starting, several
successive crops much heavier than that would have been raised,
still without any manure. I should have reaped 45 to 50 qviarters
of corn off that 10 acres, for a number of years together : is there
the slightest probability that anything like this produce could have
been reaped from that field, year after year, if it had lain as 5 acres
of wheat and 5 acres of fallow, — that is, that the 5 acres would
have yielded at the rate of 9 to 10 quarters per acre ? Whatever
may be the scientific explanation, my practice affords substantial
proof that tillage processes in close proximity to the growing

ivith Horse {or Steam) Tillac/e.

81

plants, and tbp free admission of air and liglit amono^st the g^reon
and flag-g-y stems, do wonderfully stimulate and develope the crop,
at the same time strengthening the straw and saving the grain
from the damage inflicted by "lodging." l""or while over-heavy
crops sown on the ordinary plan come up a mass of flaccid stems,
too weak at bottom to spring up against the weight of rains and
violent winds, the stalks of a "strip(>"' crop are stout, green, and
strong, bearing aloft th(> ears to ripen and grow plump and heavy
in the sunlight; and 1 l)elieve it is only after late sowing that the
vigorous healthy straw would be specially liable to disease from
atmospheric changes.

The system is just an adaptation to grain-crops of the inter-
cultural horse-hoeing and deep stirring which bring your 40 tons
of mangold per acre, your fortune-making potato-crops, and your
pre])osterous prize swedes and cabbages.

The details of management are exceedingly simple : —

1. After harvest, fork out couch from the closely-mown stubble-
stripes.

2. Broadshare or scarify the fallow intervals, to keep down the
annual weeds.

3. Shortly before seed-time again scarify and harrow, taking
care to set the harrows so as to miss the stubble-rows.

4. Drill as follows : — Arrange the drill with four coulters, as
in Fig. 2 ; the outside coulters A A' 5 feet apart, and the inside
ones B B 40 inches apart, leaving the spaces A B and B A' each,
of course, 10 inches wide. Set the shafts in the middle of the
drill, so that the horses walk upon the old stubble-rows C. The
drill turns short at each end of the field, and the forward coulter
(that next to the unsown ground) is used as a " marker," without
sowing any seed. Thus the coulter A' has the seed shut off; but
on the return course of the drill (as shown by the dotted lines,
the horses walking along the stubble-roAvs D), it traverses in the
same track as before, l)ut with the seed running — the coulter A
(that was sowing last time) being now in the position E, with its
seed shut off.

Fig. 2.

'I

■i(

•f"-'7

5. Sow three pecks per acre ; that Is, employ the same cogwheel
on the barrel that would sow six pecks per acre if the rows had
VOL. I. — S. S. G

82 Lois-Weedon Wheat-Groioing

been 10 inches apart over the whole ground instead of averaging
20 inches apart, as they do. Thus the wheat will not be thin in
the rows ; the small quantity of seed per acre, arising from the
fewness of the rows to be sown.

6. Be sure to get the wheat in early, because of this compara-
tively spare seeding, and of the effect of the after-tillage in pro-
longing the summer growth of the crop.

7. When the wheat is well up, take a plough (with two horses
*'in length") once along each interval, the coulter running within
6 inches of the wheat on the " near " side, and the furrow-slice
covering up the old stubble. The furrow may be 5 inches deep,
without the upturned earth falling upon the wheat on the other
side of the interval.

8. A subsoiler, drawn by say three horses in length, must im-
mediately follow ; breaking up the furrow bottom to a depth of
5 inches more, making a total depth of 10 inches. The fallow
interval thus treated is represented at A, Fig. 3.

9. In spring, say in February or as soon as the land is dry
enough after a time of frost, perform the same double operation
of ploughing and subsoiling along the opposite side of the interval,
as at B,

10. In March or April hand-hoe the wheat-rows.

11. In April, when the upturned furrow-slices are in a crumb-
ling state, tear them down by passing a narrow harrow along the
intervals.

12. Directly afterwards stir deeply with a good grubber, set
to take a width of about 26 to 28 inches, the horses walking in
length. This stage of the fallowing process is represented at C.

13. It- will be necessary to go over the field with a hand-rake,
to pull off any clods that may have fallen upon and buried the
plants in the outside wheat-rows.

14. Horse-hoe the fallow intervals deeply, at least twice during
the summer.

15. Hand- weed the wheat Avhen requisite.

16. When the ears are fully out and in bloom, take a double-
mouldboard-plough or ridge-plough up the intervals, so as to
slightly or partially mould up the wheat on each side : this will
prevent many stalks from being blown down by winds, or borne
down by heavy rains.

Fig. 3.

17. A subsoil-plough should break up the bottom of the furrow

with Horse {or Steam) Tillaf/e. 83

left open in the middle of each interval ; the state of the interval
now being indicated at D.

18. The crop may be mown or bag-ged close to the ground;
but bear in mind not to obliterate the lines of stubble by har-
rowing or otherwise, because these form the " guideways " for
the next sowing.

In some cases, as when the ground is cloddy, it may be ad-
visable to omit operations 16 and 17 : and on the other hand, if
the moulding-up has been deeply done, it may be necessary, in
preparing the intervals for the next sowing, to gather the soil .
again into the centre of the interval, say by a " pony-plough."

As the subsoiled furrows A, B, and D, lie open to the weather
for many weeks, the whole breadth of the interval, when autumn
arrives, has been exposed and pulverised to a depth of 10 inches
— without a raw subsoil having been laid over a buried staple —
forming an uncommonly fine dead-fallowed seed-bed for the next
crop.

As far as cleanliness is concerned, my operations do not give
root-weeds much chance of making themselves obnoxious. In
my field the couch decreased, so as to give little or no trouble ;
although on these alluvial soils, with moist light bottom, this
pestilent plant naturally runs and mats with wonderful vigour
and pertinacity. The buttercups and thistles followed suit ; and
though annual weeds were annoying aud expensive, owing to the
unusual access of air and light into every portion of the crop, yet
they required less and less attention every year. Indeed, Mr.
Smith, of Woolston, claims to have established this point, that
non-inversion husbandry will ultimately wear out the whole brood
of smothering plants which taxes the incessant hoe and spud. It
is a fact that, alter bearing all my successive corn-crops, my field
was comparatively free from weeds, excepting those obstinate
buttercups and strong-hearted thistles ; that no fallowing what-
ever was needful for the peas and oats which came after the frost-
killed stripe-wheat ; and the existing clover-lea (barring a few
foreign importations in the seed) will bear without shame the
critical scrutiny of a botanical agriculturist.

Before tabulating the several items of expenditure averaged
from all the years of my experiment, I must offer one or two
explanatory remarks. For " ploughing and subsoiling " an acre of
land, 3a'. 6f/. appears an absurdly small charge ; but it is thus
light, because only one furrow in each " interval," — that is, one-
sixth of the area of the field is thus tilled and paid for. Other
items appear in like proportion. I am not in a district notc^d for
low wages. During two out of the four years of my stripe; wheat-
growing, I paid 12^. per week, and in the other two years l(J.s\

a 2

84 Lois-JVeedon Wlicut-Groinnrj

and 10.s\ 6r/. per week to men, and Gr/. to M. to boys. Women
were not engaged in tlie field at all. In harvest the work was
done by the piece (the general farm-crops being mown or reaped
at from 10s. to 14^. per acre), and some of the hands that worked
on my tillage operations were the hired team-men, each at I65.
a week. I think I have not undercharged the horse labour. For
every horse I put down 2s. Gd. per day (including use of imple-
ment), which should be enough, seeing that it is equivalent to
30Z. a year for 240 working days. The men working the horses
. were, of course, paid for in addition. Then as to public expenses :
my tithe rent-charge on arable land is about Ss. per acre, and the
rates of all sorts and direct (assessed and income) taxes I set
down at 7s. per acre. The proper rent for this particular field I
could only average from the rents of the immediate neighbourhood,
putting it at obs. ; though from the unfavourable reputation of
the piece for many years, it is hardly fair to value it at so much.
The account is as follows : —

Expenses per Acre.

£. s. (7.

August .. .. Rcarifj'iug fallow intervals 1 G

September.. .. Forking-out couch 3

Scarifying and twice Larrowing intervals .. 2

October .. .. Drilling and harrowing 2 f)

Seed, 3 pecks (at, say 5s. per bushel) . . . . 3

December .. .. Ploughing and subsoiling 3 G

Feb. and March I'loughiug and subsoiling, and removing clods) „ 1-

oft' wheat ) '^ *

A]ir. and May .. Hand-hoeing the wheat 1 G

Plarrowiug and scuffling the intervals . . . . 14

May Hand-weeding the wheat 0!)

Horse-hoeing the intervals 10

June .. .. Horse-hoeing the intervals, second time .. .. O 1

Jloulding-up wheat 8

Subsoiling 2

Hand-weeding wheat 4

August .. .. Mowing and harvesting, &c 1 1

Threshing and marketing O 10

Working expenses per acre 2 19 2

Add for rent, say 35s.; tithe, 8s.; rates and direct (assessed) o -ia a
and income) taxes, 7s. ; making together j ""

The total outlay per acre being .. .. 5 2

Doubtless a skilful application of the wire-rope and steam-
driven implements would materially lower the expense as well
as increase the efficiency of processes performed in my case by
horses, two or three drawing in a line " tandem " fashion. Cer-
tainly, I lost produce by the kneading of so many hoofs at times

ii'ifk Horse {or Steam) Tillarjc. 85

wlien the ground was too wet and spongy for proj)er working,
and by the teams trampling up the wheat in turning at both ends
of the field.

I will add here that my 10-acre plot was by no means favoured
with attention, so as to have eaeh operation done in the most
suitable weather, no matter what might be the demands of otlier
fields upon the farm. Instead of that, it unfortunately had to
take its turn when the horses could be best spared from other
labours ; and, in consequence, the entries in my memorandum-
book complain of the muddy ploughings, mauly subsoilings, and
scarify ings, and uj)rooted or plastered-down portions of wheat.

And now for the practical recommendation arisiiuj out of this
experience. Not necessarily to grow four or more wheat-crops in
yearly succession on the same land ; for in my experiment you
see a principle tried to an extremity, just for the sake of j)roving
the productive power of intercultural tillage. Not to introduce a
rotation like mine as a pattern to be followed on a large scale.
Suppose we take but A couple of wheat-crops together in a
THREE-FIELD COURSE, that is, two years wheat, and the third
year spring-corn, green crops, or what you please, the straw being
returned to the land as manure in this third year. On my field,
the produce on this system (as I have shown from what actually
was raised on the comparatively exhausted ground) would be,
with every degree of probability, 36 to 40 bushels per acre in an
average season. Take a low market, say at o^s. per quarter.
Then 30 bushels per acre give a return of 8/. 2.9. ; and deducting
the low total cost of the crop, hi. 10s., Ave have a balance of
21. 12s. per acre for profit and interest of capital. A yield of
40 bushels an acre, at the same price, would give a surplus
of 3/. lO.y. per acre over the total expenditure. If you reckon
upon the more reasonable market-price of 40i'. per c[uarter, the
yield of 3(J bushels leaves a profit of 3/. IOa". per acre ; and the
yield of 40 bushels leaves a ])rofit of 4/. IQs. per acre. On 300
acres arable we should have 200 acres under wheat, producing a
nett annual income of 520/., 700/., or 900/., according to which-
ever yield and market we met with. No manure being wanted
by either year's whcat-c-rop, all the wheat-straw, enriched it
you please with cake and corn feeding, would go to manure
the remaining 100 acres of crops, — spring -corn, green food,
and roots ; and if it is really more profitable to grow food for
live-stock than to sow large breadths of bread-corn, under the
common mode of management, there can be no doubt that this
100-acre portion (with 200 acres of straw manuring it) would
account for itself without any heavy deficit of expenditure over
proceeds. But this manuring is not all that Avould be in favour
of the 100 acres of cropping. Not only is the second year's wheat-

86

L(jis- Wccdon Wheat- Groiciru,

crop produced at a total outlay of 5/. 10s, per acre, but the land
is siniultaiicouslij fallowed and cleaned in readiness for the third
years mixed cropping. The stripe-wlieat relieves the green crop
of its old burdensome duty of cleaning the land for succeeding
crops ; and no part of the 100 acres will have to undergo the
usual long processes of winter and spring fallowing. Hence
the expenses on such a crop of roots would be far less heavy than
in the common way.

An illustration of the proposed system is afforded by the
following diagrams : —

First Year.

Second Year.

Third Year.

VT

B'

V/2

S

O'

V/2

M

W"

W2

P

W

W2

Bi

W2

VT

Oi

W2

S

W

W2

M

w

W2

P

V/2

VT

BI

V/z

S

O'

V/z

M

W"

W2

P

w

The parallelogram represents 300 acres, divided into twelve
fields of 25 acres each. Suppose that the miscellaneous cropping
occupies the four fields in column a for the first year, in column
c for the second year, and in column h for the third year, the
rotation travelling over the farm from right to left, V T may be
25 acres of vetches followed by turnips ; S will be 25 acres of
swedes ; M, 25 acres of mangold ; and P, 25 acres of pulse-corn.
The turnips may be succeeded by B\ barley ; and the swedes by
O', oats, both these crops to be sown in 3-row stripes (taking the
place of wheat, for the first two years of stripe-culture). The
mangold and peas or beans may be followed by stripe-wheat W^
In the third year these four fields (B\ 0\ W, W) will bear the
second stripe-crop of wheat, W'-^, W^, W^, W^. There will thus
be 150 acres of wheat and 50 acres of oats and barley each year.
This plan admits of winter-fed roots and early vetches, but makes
no provision for a clover layer. I do not know what great ob-
jection there may be to the scheme (of course on proper wheat-
land, having a due proportion of clay in its composition), for if
the part under stripe-corn can bring the occupier such a hand-
some income as I anticipate, he need not be much concerned
about any larger store of forage for animals.

One important question, of course, is the practicability of exe-
cuting the tillage required by such an arrangement : What would
be the distribution of horse-labour throughout the year ? The
references in my memorandum-book relating to the 10 acres will

(i'ith Ilur.sc {or Steam) TiUar/e.

61

enable me to givt; an answer. The horse-labour rccjuired lor
200 acres of wheat, oats, and barley would be as follows : —

Number

Number

Jlonth.

Operation.

of llorst'S

of Days

engaged.

occupied.

Aug. ..

Scarifying intervals of 100 acres

!)

5

Sept. . .

Scarifying ditto, 2nd time, and twice harrowing

10

G

Oct. ..

Ploughing and harrowing 50 acres (after)

10

U

mangolds and pulse-corn) |

Drilling and harrowing 150 acres

10

l.'ii

Dec. ..

First ploughing and subsoiling 100 acres

JO

10

Ploughing 25 acres (for barlev)

10

5

Fol ). and

Second ploughing and subsoiling lUO acres ,.

10

10

Mar.

Ploughing 25 acres (for oats)

JO

5

Drilling and harrowing 50 acres (barley and)

10

7

oats) j

Apr. and

Harrowing intervals, 100 acres .. .. • ..

2

5

]\Iay.

Scarifying intervals, 200 acres

10

12

May ..

First horse-hoeing or stirring intervals, 2001
acres j

5

G

Juue ..

Second ditto, 200 acres

5

(>

Moulding-up wheat, 200 acres

5

G

Subsoiling intervals, 200 acres

10

G

Leading the corn in harvest, and delivery at market must be
added.

The total number of days' work for one horse is just 1000.
Now 12 horses are not an excessive force upon oOO acres arable,
and at 240 days' work each, they do 2880 days' work in a year ;
so that the stripe-cropping^ would occupy a normal force of horses
little more than a third of their time throughout a year. Looking
at the various months, it appears that the stripe-croj)ping would
demand team-labour for only 5 days in August, during half of
September and October, half of ])ecember, one-third of February
and March, a third of April and May, and half of June. This
would leave ample time for the tillage of the various crops upon
the 100 acres ; seeing, moreover, that these crops would take
much less labour than if ordinary fallowing and cleaning had to
be pursued in preparing secd-l)eds for them.

As I have supposed barley and oats in stripes to be substituted
for the first year's wheat on portions of the land, I will justify
my expectation that this would answer as well as the wheat. jMr.
Smith is growing these crops on the stripe principle at Lois-
Weedon, the triple rows standing at every 5 feet (as the wheat-
rows do), but the spaces reduced to i) inches each, leaving 42
inches for the fallow interval. After highly-manured carrots and

88 Covered Catlle-ijanls.

mangold drawn off the land, the yield of barley has been no less
than 72 bushels per acre ; and of oats, just the same, namel}',
Avithin a fraction of 9 quarters per acre, weighing 46 lbs. per
bushel.

In conclusion, I ask for a practical testing of Lois-Weedon
wheat-growing as adapted to traction tillage. Not for a rash
adoption of a speculative " three-course rotation :" Ijut first of
all, for a trial on one field or plot of suitable wheat-soil. Let
that field be managed as if it were under the three-course hus-
bandry ; take stripe-wheat (with a portion of oats, or barley if you
like) lor the first year ; again, stripe-wheat for the second year ;
and then plough up and manure for other crops in the third
year ; after which, of course, two stripe-crops as before. With
accounts properly kept, this would soon show what merit exists
in the principle, and — do homage to the genius of Jethro Tull.
I know that it is difficult to move the mind of a practical man
out of its habit of settling things from general considerations. I
shall be told that an extension of wheat-culture is not advisable,
because roots, clover, and cattle-crops have, of late years,
answered better. But what can the wheat-crops that don't pay
possibly have to do with my wheat-crops which ivill pay ? The
entire case rests upon the low cost of production by my

METHOD, IN COMPARISON WITH THE COST OF A WHEAT-CROP IN

ORDINARY FARMING. I raise two good wheat-crops in succession
lor 5/. 10s. per acre each (every source of outlay included), and
at the same time and for the selfsame money, I am fallowing and
cleansing the ground in readiness for roots or other of the third
year s crops. Can any other system show an economy of expen-
diture like this?

; Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, Januanj, 18G5.

VI. — Covered Cattle-yards. By W. J. Mosckop.

Although the design of this short contribution to the ' Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society ' is less to discuss the merits of
covered cattle-yards, than to call attention to a peculiar mode of
constructing them, yet a brief recapitulation of the advantages
which practically we have found to arise from their use will not
be out of place, more especially as the fact is undoubted, that
among the great body of farmers they have not yet attained the
popularity, or even met with that appreciation which they
assuredly deserve.

Whether an inquiry into the cause of this supineness would be
attended Avith any useful result is doubtful ; therefore, without

Covered Cdttlc-ijards. 89

encleavourinu^ to trace it further, Ave will quote from one whose
experience in the erection of covered yards is second to non(> in
the kingdom.*

" As a general rule," he says, '' 1 have fountl much jucjudice
against covered homesteads when first proposed, l)ut I do not
recollect one instance of dissatisfaction after they had been in
use for one year." This oilers a key for the solution of th(;
enigma, and points to this conclusion, viz., — that prejudice arises
from inexperience.

Assuming then that we have a covered yard constructed as
per plan annexed, we will point out the advantages which it
offers in respect of shelter, warmth, comfort — securing the health
and economical maintenance of the cattle ; the })eriect conser-
vation of the manure ; and ct>nse(|uently its economical supply
for the benefit of the soil.

Ecoiwndcal Fccdimj and preservation of the Health of Cattle kept
in Covered Yards.

In the theory of fattening there is a well-known axiom, that
" warmth is e([uivalent to food," and this has been practically
endorsed by many who have adopted the covered-yard system of
feeding cattle.

The food which all animals consume — " burn in the lungs" —
for the maintenance of vital heat, is here restricted to a minimum.
Moreover, they have a dry lair, and are comfortable. They do
not range uneasily about, or witli staring coats, shivering, stand
exposed to the " pelting of the pitiless storm," like their less
fortunate fellows in the o])en yard, but with comfort eat their
food, in comfort rest ; and for such comforts show their gratitude
to their owners by their rapid development.

In an experimental trial we proved that, under cover, animals,
each of which had a separate hox, gained as much weight, witli
something under J th less food, as others fed with the same descrip-
tion of food, but kept in the common form of court and shed,
where the open j>art bore to the shedding the proportion of 4
to 1. The gain was nearly 1^. per head per week, which was
entirely attributable to the superior warmth, comfort, and repose
enjoyed by the cattle under cover.

But besides fattening on less food, animals enjoy better health
and are less liable to disease under cover than when exposed in
open or partially covered yards to the rigour and changes of our
variable climate.

* Mr. F. Chancellor, Clifluisfoid.

90 Coccrcd Cattk-ijdids.

We feel we are here treading on tender ground, as many hold
an opinion directly the converse of this. Their grand mistake
appears to lie in the very common supposition that covered yards
necessarily involve either a close and vitiated atmosphere or a pre-
valence of draughts. Instances, no doubt, may be pointed out
where the golden mean has not been hit, and where one or other
ol the above especial evils exists in a high degree ; but such are the
results of faulty design or bad construction, and the reasoning
is manifestly unjust that condemns the principle in consequence
of errors in the execution.

In a 3'ard constructed as shown by the annexed plans, while
the cattle are sheltered and comfortable, they enjoy perfect im-
munity alike from tliorough draughts and from a vitiated
atmosphere. The fluctuations of temperature in our island are
Irequent and wide ; but the tendency of such a yard is to equalise
and control that temperature, and within its precincts winter's
bitter blasts and summer's intense heats are alike unknown.

The great importance of this in the economy of animal life
will be readily seen. For whence comes that fatal train of
maladies, coughs, catarrhs, inflammations, consumptions, but
from exposure to sudden variations of temperature ? — We catch
cold. Granted that animals are not so sensitive as man : never-
theless, even to them, alternations of warmth, wet, and cold arc
most productive of disease.

That cattle kept in covered yards enjoy better health than
others kept where the cover is only partial is established by
abundant evidence.

In support of this view, we quote the following from a com-
munication with which we have been favoured from Mr. J. G.
Marriage, of Ham Farm, lied Hill : — " Our buildings are 130
leet by 1U3 feet, and afford accommodation for 100 head of stock ;
and to give you an idea of the health they enjoy, I may state that
lor the last seven years the farrier's bill has not averaged 206'.
per year."

But there is yet another class of opponents to the covered-yard
system, who, while admitting the general well-doing of the cattle
kept in them during the winter, argue that what is then gained
is lost in early summer, when the animals are turned to grass,
from their great susceptibility on exposure to cold. The writer's
own experience, and also that of many others whom he has
addressed on this matter, is dead against this view. With much
more apparent justice might it be inferred that milch-cows,
which are usually kept in a much closer, warmer atmosphere,
would catch cold when turned to grass ; yet, as a general rule,
such is not the case.

Covered Cutttc-i/anh 91

Superiority of the Manure made in Coccred Yards.

15y I'ar the s^ieatcr jjiopoition of oidinaiy fannyard-inanure
consists ol straw and water, the rciiiauider being the excrements
of the cattle. Under cover about 20 lbs. of straw per diem is
found litter sufficient for one animal ; in open yards, more than
twice that quantity is required ; and if, as is generally supposed,
the excrements give the tone and character to the manure, it will
be readily seen, why that made under cover is normally much
superior to that made in the open air. We say " normally,"
because in the one case the original value is maintained, but in
the other k)st by drainage and waste.

It would be superfluous to dwell on the deteriorating influence
exercised by rain-water falling on manure, or the great loss in-
curred by exposure to its washings. The curious in this matter
will find ample information by referring to the researches of
Way, Voelcker, and other modern writers on chemistry ; the
practical man, we opine, will be more gratified by a reference to
results. From dressings of equal quantities of manure made
under the same conditions as to the food and age of the animals,
but in one case under cover and in the other in open yards. Lord
Kinnaird obtained the following results : * —

Uncovered Diukj.

Per Acre.

1st year. Potatoos 7 tons 12 cwts.
2nd year. Wheat 42 bushels.
„ Straw do. 15G stones.

Covered Dung.

Per Acre.
1st year. Potatoes 11 tons 5 cwts.
2nd year. AVhcat 5-1 bushels.
Straw do. 215 stones.

Mr. Akers, of Black Bourton, Oxon, in a communication to
the writer, says : —

" You arc aware that I liave at my I'arin an open yard as well as my larvae
covered yard, and Avhcn I first used the manure made in the latter I was
startled to find my crops for which it had been applied so lodged as to be
almost worthless. Since then I have sometimes been at considerable expense
to have that made under cover and in the open cither mixed or api)lied con-
jointly, so as to insure an eciuable cro]) ; or when the covered-}'ard manure
is used separately, the quantity is invariably reduced, so as to guard against
my previous misfortime. I usually manage my covered manure so that it
will "spit" out with the shovel when required for use, so that 1 have no
need to haul it into a field-heap, and I consequently save the usual labour of
twice filling, carting, and emptying."

Mr. J. C. Garth, of Haine's Hill, Berks, in reference to the
covered yard of his home-farm, writes : —

" The manure is first-rate, but as I have not made an actual trial, I cannot
decidedly say how much it is better than that made in open yards ; but
perhaps one of the principal advantages of covered yards is the great supe-
riority of the manure. The cattle should be littered every day, or every

* Trans. Ilighluiul Agricultural Society.

92 Covered Caitlc-ijards.

other day ; llic liquid i.s llicii all alisovLcd by the straw. 'J'hc dung is good
and short, and fit to be drawn on to the land witliout the expense and waste of
making dunghcaps.

" I consider this system of manure-making is also more healthy for the
cattle, as in open yards tlie liquid runs about emitting effluvia and tainting
the soil, whereas in covered yards it is all taken up by the straw."

Mr. Chancellor says : —

" The late Mr. James Beadel always stated, as the result of his lengthened
experience (and he might be considered as one of the pioneers of the system),
tliat one load of covered-yard manure was worth, moi-e than two loads of open-
yard manure.

"Its tendency to get dried and heated has always been advanced as an
argument against covered yards by those who have not tried them, but I
never heard it used by any one who had. The truth is, it keeps infinitely
moister than in open yards in a dry season. I have often seen the manure
when being emptied come out like ' black butter,' and, with perhaps the
exceiJtion of the top layer, quite fit to put on the land,"

Mr. H. S. Thompson, says : —

" When first I began to use manure made in a covered yard, it was put on
for white turnips in the usual quantity, and they were stimidated by it to
an imnaturally rapid growth and excessive size, which- were very prejudicial
to their keeping qualities. This taught me the lesson, which has since been
abundantly confirmed, that manure made under cover is fully one-tliird
stronger than that which has been exposed to the rains of winter in open
yards. Before trial it might be sujiposed that manure made under cover
would turn out drj^ and mo\ild}% but if the quantity of straw used is in reason-
able i)roportion to the numjber of live-stock kept, it will be invariably found
that the manure turns out in first-rate condition. The explanation is easy,
the most common cause of damage to manure being that the fertilising salts
it contains arc washed out by rain as last as they are formed by the decom-
position of the heap; and when tliese salts are all retained, the moisture will
be retained also." *

The writer's experience fully bears out the above statements.
In the case of animals, alike in age and fed alike, but kept in
open or in covered yards, it is clear that the difference of value
of the manures they make will in a great measure vary Avith the
amount of rainfall, which not only, by its repeated washings,
deteriorates the quality, but also entails the necessity for large
additions of litter ; but on the whole, and under average circum-
stances, we believe Mr. Thomson's estimate of one-third increased
value will bet' ound to be a fair one.

In a trial made on some meadow-land thoroughly exhausted
by many consecutive years of mowing, the following results were
obtained Irom the separate application of manure made in covered
and open yards :-—

Uncovered Biukj.

15 loads per acre produced lU cwts.
hay.

Covered- Yard Ditiiij.

15 loads per acre produced 25 cwts.
hay.

* Trans. Yorkshire Agricultural Society, No. 24.

Covered Ciiftlo-jiards. 93

A portion loft nninanurod l)aio]v pioducod 10 cwts, por aero.

Owing to poculiar circumstances, the difference in this case
was greater than on an average can be reckoned on ; but this
and many other similar comparative instances witliin the range
of the writer's experience, clearly prove that the advantage
arising from the superiority of the manure made in covered
yards is in itself sufficiently important to warrant their very
extensive adoption.

Superior Economy in the Application of Manure.

Owing to the lesser cjuantity of litter used, the excrements of
the cattle bear a greater jn-oportion to the whole mass when
manure is made in covered yards, and after lying some little
time turns out quite fit for direct application for any description
of crop, whereby a very material saving of labour is effected.
The quality is still further enhanced, and consccjuently the
fjuantity rorpiired is further reduced, by the avoidance of the waste
of soluble salts attendant on drainage and leakage after rainfall.

Assuming 20 tons of ordinary open-yard manure to be a fair
dressing per acre, and that lo tons of covered-yard manure would
be quite as effective, we in this respect save the cost of the appli-
cation of 7 tons per acre, which on an average is certainly not
less than 3.9. Qd. And besides, in ordinary practice, the open-
yard manure would be carted to the fields to ferment in a heap
previous to its application, and the labour involved in refilling,
carting, and emptying, may be put as Ad. per ton, or 6a'. 8r/. per
acre, showing in the aggregate a saving of 10.9. per acre; and this
we believe to be a very moderate calculation. Moreover the
straw which is saved in the litter becomes available for food ;
and if there is any truth in estimates which set the feeding value
of straw at 35.s-., and the manurial value of straw at 12.9. Cul. per
ton, the gain in this respect must be considerable.

Among the advocates for open yards, on the ground of the great
facilities they afford for rotting down the straw, was the late Mr.
Pusey ; but undoul^tedly his usual sagacity was at fault here. If,
as he seems to make out, rain-water is indispensable in the con-
version of straw into manure, the rotting process might ])ossibly be
effected with more economy by leaving in the fields all the straw
not required for the cattle ; its haulage to the yard, and rehaulage,
plus 70 per cent, of water, to the field, would at least be saved.*

* In Mr. Pusey's excellent review of the ' Progress of Agricultural Knowledge
during tlie last eight years,' he states tliey "were obliged to use a fire-engine to
moisten the latter which was growing white and mouldy for want of moisture."
In covered yards no sucli want is ever felt. See Mr. Thompson's explanation, in
foregoing paper, of the reason wliy. Mr. Pusey, in the siinic article, states,
" When it rains here in winter our labourers say, ' This is fine weather for
making dung.' "

94 Covered Cattle-yards.

Reverting to the plan for covered yards before us (p. 97), it
must be understood that the writer claims no merit for the concep-
tion of the design, that being most justly due to another. Having
been strongly impressed with the great advantages attendant on
the use of covered yards, he has for some years advocated their
extension ; but neither in his own designs nor in those of others
had he seen the essentials perfectly attained until the summer of
1863, when business led him to the home-farm of Mr. H. S.
Thompson, at Kirby Hall, Yorkshire. Previous to this he had
inspected some yards of a very costly description, but with
imperfect ventilation, and others where the ventilation was suffi-
cient, but the accompaniment of draughts proved that it was
obtained on a wrong principle. Among the latter may be
classed a design of his own, constructed in Berks, in which the
end to the south was left open ; this with plenty of height secured
a pure atmosphere, and all went well in calm weather, but a
wind from the south, south-east, or south-west, created a great
and most unpleasant draught, which was very prejudicial to the
comfort and health of the stock.

The great merit of Mr. Thompson's covered yard (which was
designed by himself) consists in its simplicity, which enables
it, at a minimum cost, to afford shelter and warmth, with perfect
ventilation and freedom from draughts — combining, in short, all
the advantages which the most complicated structure can, and
which so few of them do, practically afford.

This to the writer was so apparent that, when a homestead was
to be reconstructed on this estate, it was decided, with the sanction
of the proprietors, to adopt in principle Mr. Thompson's plan.
That yard, the plans of which we give, has now been in use
upwards of fifteen months, fulfilling our most sanguine anticipa-
tions, so that with the most perfect confidence we can recommend
the mode and principle of its construction to the attention of all
interested in this subject.

The leading feature in the plan is that the ventilation is ob-
tained entirely from the roof. At 9 feet above the level of the
paved causeway, and between the outer and middle roofs, there
is an open space of about 6 inches, running all round the
yard. This ensures an ample supply of fresh air, but in prac-
tice does not produce any perceptible draught. At 8 feet
higher, or about 17 feet from the causeway, between the highest
central roof and the two middle roofs, we have another venti-
lating space of 15 inches continued round the yard, through
which there is a continuous draught, but so much above the
level of the cattle as not to be in the least felt ; here it acts only
so as to draw off (as it does most effectually) the tainted air
from the yard. The supply at the 9-feet level maintains the

Covered Cattle-yards. 95

equilibrium, and it is essential that this lower opening should
not be too large in proportion to the upper one ; the result
is the thorough ventilation of the yard. And this, it will be
seen, is effected by very simple and inexpensive means. The
brickwork on which rests the tiebeam of the middle por-
tion of the roof, is carried a few inches higher than the walls
or beam supporting the roof of the outside range of buildings.
This gives the open space for ventilation, and at the same
time, as it carries the middle roof higher, affords opportunity
for the water to Ije discharged from the middle to the outer
roof, which in the ordinary course is received and carried away
by cast-iron spouting ; the central high roof also throws its
water on to this middle roof, whence it is likewise carried on to
the outer roof. The spouting of the outer roofs therefore carries
off the whole of the water that falls on the yard. It will thus be
seen that no expensive lead-gutters are required, and that the
space which in ordinary constructions is usually occupied by
them is utilised to give ventilation. The 15-inch space between
the middle and the highest central roofs is protected by the pro-
jection of the latter to the extent of 18 inches ; thus while light
and air are freely admitted, the ingress of rain is prevented ; and
as no louvres are required, a material saving is effected.

The stable, cowhouse, &c., are also well ventilated by the
following simple, inexpensive, and, we believe, novel plan.
The spars, instead of being laid at one length, are divided ; one
part being laid from the eaves to the purlin, to which it is firmly
spiked. The other part is spiked on the former, and extends from
the purlin to the ridge ; and as this is done on both sides of the
roof, and for its entire length, it leaves a ventilating space equal
in width to the depth of the spars. The tiles have sufficient
overlap to prevent the rain from beating in. The ventilation is
excellent, and the use of the common wooden ventilators on the
ridge of the roof becomes altogether unnecessary.

The divisions between the yards and stable, cowhouse, 6cc.,
are dwarf walls 2 ft. high, finished with rails, piers being carried
up to support the roofs. On the south side the walls are carried
up the full height, to enclose the shops and loose boxes intended
for sick animals. If thought preferable, posts could be substi-
tuted in whole or in part lor the internal walls, and in that case
the external walls enclosing the entire yard would alone be
necessary. The posts carrying the roof are timber, and are set
in ston^, 18 in. base and 2 feet high. In our case the posts are
oak, 16 feet long, which square about 7 inches. If larch is used
no squaring is necessary, but care should be taken to select
straight poles. The roof is covered with tiles, unpointed except-

96 Covered Cattle-yarch.

ing two courses round the bottom of the high roof. Light is
obtained by the spaces left for ventilation, and by glass tiles in
the roof. The arrangement of the offices are as follows : —

1. Calves-house.
m. Piggeries,

n. Poultry-house.

0. Store for pig-ibod, with space

for boiler.
^). Boxes for sick animals, &c.

'/. Turnip-house i'or yards.

q. Carpenter's shop.

r. Blacksmith's shop.

s. Harness and tool house.

tttt. Yards sufficient to accom-
modate 32 head of cattle, allow-
ing each animal 200 square feet
of s})ace.

a. On tlie plan represents 10-stalled

stable.
h. Hay-house.

c. Corn-bin connected by spout with

granary.

d. Cart and implement shed with

granary over.

e. Chaff-house ; chaff-cutter being

on the floor above.
/. Straw-barn.
g. Corn-barn.

h. Fatting-house for 12 beasts.
i. Turnip-house,
y. Cow-house for 10 cows.
1c. Hay-house for ditto.

A satisfactory mode of cover being obtained, the internal
arrangements may be varied according to requirements ; but on
a farm where breeding, rearing, and fattening is carried on, we
believe the arrangements of this plan will be found suitable for a
farm-yard. The first essential is a provision for the maintenance
of the health and comfort of the stock ; second, economy of labour
in feeding ; third, facility for the removal of the manure ; fourth,
economy in the construction. In all these respects this yard
will bear examination.

Notwithstanding all our refinements in cattle-feeding, straw
and roots are, and are likely to remain, their staple food. This
being so, provision is made for the supply of these articles with
the least possible expenditure of labour. With a root-house at
one end of the passage, from which the cattle in the four yards
are fed, and straw at the other, the labour of feeding is reduced
to a minimum. The same arrangement is carried out in the
fatting-house. The stable and cow-house, requiring straw in
less quantities, are placed further from it, but still conveniently
near, while their respective hay-houses are placed close at hand.
The corner root-house also supplies roots to the cow-house. The
removal of the manure is easily effected. That from the stable
and other houses placed around is daily thrown into the yards,
to which carts have free access for its final removal. Accom-
modation is afforded for sixty head of cattle and ten horses,
besides the piggeries and various offices.

The cost of such a structure will vary Avith the price of labour
and material ; but in this neighbourhood, where both are as high
as in any part of the kingdom, it could be substantially completed
for considerably under 1000/.

Under

Covered Cattle-t/ards.
PLAN OF FAini BUILDINGS.

97

TIIAVSVEUSE SKCTION — A. R.

LOKGITUDINAL SECTIOX — C. V.

VOL. I. S. S,

Scale 32 ft. to an inch.
H

98 Covered Cattle-] /ards.

Under existing circumstances, the foregoing communication
should prove opportune matter in the ' Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society.' The low price of grain and the high
price of meat will naturally induce farmers to curtail the pro-
duction of the one and increase that of the other ; and the great
outcry for seeding-down land to grass shows that the tide has
already set that way. An increase in the number of cattle will
entail the necessity for enlarged buildings, and how this can be
most economically obtained, whether by utilising the old or
adding new, is a problem which ere long landowners will have
practically to solve.

As a cheap and efficient mode of increasing the comfort, as
well as the extent of the accommodation, the system of roofing
over existing open yards may be safely recommended. In no
other way will so large an amount of accommodation be obtained
at so small a cost.

Given the familiar open yard enclosed on three or four sides
by barn, stables, and other offices, having a capacity for accom-
modating stock dependent less upon its size than on the extent
of the adjoining shelter-sheds — any landowner, by applying the
principles which we advocate, may, with the thinnings of his
plantations and the labour of his carpenter, double the amount
of cattle-accommodation, and convert this uninviting, litter-
wasting, labour-wasting, food-wasting, manure-wasting, cattle-
starving space into a comfortable, well-ventilated covered yard.

Two yards of the above description on the home-farm of the
Earl of Zetland, at Upleatham, have just been so utilised by
being roofed over on Mr. Thompson's principle, from designs of
the writer, and a third is now in hand ; and we have his Lordship's
permission to say that he is much pleased with the change, and
highly approves of the piinciple cm which it has been effected.

To assist my readers in forming an approximate estimate of
the cost of such improvements, I will add a statement of the
quantities of work executed in covering the smaller of Lord
Zetland's two yards, and of the prices at which, by contract, I-
can in this district get such work done.

The yard being enclosed by existing buildings on four sides, no
outlay on outside walls was required. Its length is 55 feet,
width 53 feet. The roofs are carried on 10 oak posts set in stone
blocks ; the ends of the tiebeams of the side roofs being let
into the walls. The covering is of pantiles, unpointed, excepting
the two lowermost courses of the main roof.

This calculation is based on the assumption of foreign timber
being used in the construction of the roof, and a reduction to the
extent of nearly 10 per cent, on the above sum may be effected
by landowners using their own home-grown timber.

Ten Years of East LotJiian Farmiiu/. 99

Approximately, the quantities are as follows, viz. : —

£. s. d.

35 squares roof, at 21s 36 15

38 „ tiling, at 15.S 28 10

3 „ tiles, pointed 12

10 base stones and foundations 2 10

200 ft. ridge stone, at 7(7 5 IG 8

50glasstilcs 2 10

£. s. d.

216 ft. 6.-in, spouting 5 8

Less value of l-in. spout removed .. 2 14

2 14

IS ft. down pipes and heads 110

1 GO ft. lin. oak posts, at lOtZ 6 13 4

iron (bolts screw) for posts 10

Cutting holes iu walls for beam cuds .. .. 5

£87 17

At 6.\ per cent, the interest on the above amounts to 5/. 145. 2d.
per annum, being a charge of 75. Id. per head on the 15 cattle
which, since the yard was covered, it is found it will amply
accommodate. Few practical men will doubt that, apart from
other concomitant advantages, the benefit accruing to the animals
from superior comfort will fully repay this cost.

Kirhleathain, Bedcar, Yorkshire,
December 7, 1864.

VII. — Te7i Years of East Lothian Farmim/.
By E. Scot Skirving.

We can well imagine that a southern Englishman, travelling
for the first time to the north by the East Coast line of railway,
may experience something like surprise upon passing into Scot-
land. He may not be of those whose conception of Caledonia
is that of a region entirely covered with heather, and shrouded
in mist, a land whose unbreeched inhabitants subsist upon
oatmeal and whisky, and stone all those who " gather sticks "
upon the Sabbath-day. A et our trayeller may have some pre-
conceived ideas which are likely to Ije disturbed when he sees
around him a district as dry, as thoroughly cultivated, and
frequently as level, as his own. This surprise is likely to be
heightened by the fact that, as he approached the northern
extremity of England, he found himself passing through a cold,
dreary, ungenial tract of country, which seemed a for(»taste of
worse things to come. Berwickshire and the Lothians have,
however, no claim to represent "the land of brown heath and
shaggy wood ;" and their fields have long been ploughed by

H 2

100 Ten Years of East Lothian Farming.

Saxon cultivators, avIio liavo as little in common with the Gael,
or even with the Western Celt, as the soil has with Strath Canon,
or the hills of Aro^ylshire. Yet, in spite of expanses covered
with wheat or barley, with beans or potatoes, which may bear
some comparison with those of the south, differences would soon
be discernible in the trees and plants which indicate less of
summer warmth than Kent or Sussex enjoy. No hops would be
seen ; and although the sweet chestnut, the walnut, and the
acacia might appear as thriving trees, the two former here fail
to ripen their fruit, and the latter can seldom boast of its flowers.
Summer never hears the song of the nightingale ; and though
Christmas sees the holly bright with berries, no misletoe ever
clings to the oak. As regards crops, perhaps the most marked
difference is the almost total absence of the mangold, the place of
Avhich is, however, amply supplied by turnips of various kinds.*

We propose in the present paper to give some account of the
fortunes of agriculture as connected with East Lothian, a portion
of the above-named district, during the last decade.

Rather more than ten years ago an able article, entitled
" Farming in East Lothian," appeared in this Journal, written by
Mr. Charles Stevenson, editor of ' The North British Agriculturist.'
That paper gave so complete an account of the system of agri-
culture then practised in Haddingtonshire, that the reader may
safely be referred to it as the foundation and the starting-point
of this paper.l Some minor changes in management have of
course since taken place ; and experience, or the change of times,
has set aside one or two of the opinions expressed in 1853.

* It is true the mangold is cultivated to some extent in the east, and still more
in the west of Scotland, but it occupies a small and a diminishing space as com-
pared to other root-crops. In warm seasons it often produces largely, but it is
extremely uncertain, and is verj' prone to " shoot," and run prematurely to seed.
It is also found a troublesome crop to secure in autumn.

We may mention the following as a rather singular illustration of our personal
experience of a crop of mangold. In 1860, we had been induced to cultivate
it to a considerable extent ; a field of 35 acres was sown, and produced a very
fine crop ; continued rain in November and beginning of December prevented its
being secured in proper time, and on the 19tli of the latter month it was sud-
denly covered by an unusually heavy fall of snow, which put an end to all hope
of carrying it. It remained unlified during the whole winter, which was one of the
most severe on record, the thermometer being for some time several degrees below
zero, and the mangolds of course were frozen into stone. Upon being ultimately
carted in spring, the roots were blackened masses of soft pulp, which we at first
imagined were as useless as turnips when in the same condition. To our surprise
we found that cattle ate them with avidity, giving them a decided preference to
sound roots that had been properly secured from frost, and the animals throve
well and fattened satisfactorily upon them. Probably the same chemical result
may be shown by the analysis of a nearly decomposed mangold as is exhibited
in the case of a rotten turnip, which looks better in the chemist's figures than
the sound one ; but the turnip when decayed is nauseous and uneatable, while
the mangold, it would appear, becomes more inviting to bovine taste.

t See vol. xiv., No. xxxii., IS.*).'!.

Ten Years of Emt Lothian Farmiiuj. 101

Since then more manure has been purchased, and more artificial
food consumed by stock ; new and important implements have
been introduced, and agriculture has progressed in various direc-
tions ; whilst, on the other hand, it cannot be denied that in
some points it has retrograded. But the chief features of change
are the absolute, as well as the relative, value of cattle and corn ;
and, aljove all, the position and prospects of the occupiers of the
soil. We envy the writer of liSOo his pleasing task. He was
enabled, with perfect accuracy, to write as follows : — •

" Never since the close of the war (1815) has the agricultural
interest been in a more prosperous state in this country tlian at
present. There is, we believe, less deduction from the rent
covenanted for, than has ever been previously known. Perhaps
there are not ten farmers in the county who are not paying the
rent originally agreed on. We believe, also, that there is less of
arrears than has been at any period, certainly since 181G."

This prosperity, which continued for some years after 1853,
owed its origin in a great degree to the rebound which followed
the panic caused by the loss of the protective duties, but it was
subsequently maintained by more substantial causes. There
were several good harvests, that of 1852 being undoubtedly the
best ever reaped, the nearest approach to it being that of 1835,
whilst the crop of 1852 commanded a high price, wheat averaging
755. V^d. per quarter in Haddington market. Then followed,
the stimulating influence of the Crimean war, and the potato
trade (which may be said not to have existed in East Lothian
before 1850) reached its height, dealers purchasing the crop as
it grew, with all risks, and the expense of lifting, at 30/. to 40/.
an acre, and paying to individual farmers from 1000/. to 4000/.
or even 5000/. Land rose prodigiously in value, and rents pro-
bably reached their culminating point about 1855, when farms
were let at an increase which ranged from twenty to a hundred
per cent.

Then the tide began to turn, and the reverse side of the
picture appeared in sad contrast ^to the brightness of the other.
Farmers starting with leases of that date, and saddled with rents
which experience has proved to be from 20 to 30 per cent, too
high, are certainly in no enviable position ; and generally the
evidence lately taken l^efore a Koyal Commission on the subject
of Hypothec (law of distress), shows that for several years, most
farmers have been annually losing from half a rent to a whole
one.

In addition to over-rent, the farmer has had to contend with
a sequence of Inid seasons. The harvests of 185G and 1857 were
to a great extent destroyed by rain, and since then many minor
misfortunes have befallen the cro])s. Those of 185*J and 18G4

102 Ten Years of East Lothian Farmiufj.

were damag-ed by drought, whilst in 1861 a great portion of
the potato crop was lost by disease. Of the price of grain it
is unnecessary to speak ; and potatoes, which at one time pro-
mised to be the farmer's sheet anchor, were almost unsaleable in
1863, and were given in large quantities to cattle. The London
market, to Avhich the bulk of the crop had hitherto been sent,
was over-supplied, and the prices obtaineol would not pay freight
and other expenses. One farmer on opening his agent's account
of a truck sent to King's Cross, found, when all charges were
made out, a balance of 2^. iHd. against him.

In spite of all this the struggle for land, which has sensibly
slackened in other parts of Scotland, is but little diminished in
East Lothian. Cold clay lands, ill-drained and in bad condition,
have indeed ceased to attract ; but for all good, well-cultivated
farms there is still a competition sufficient to drive the occupy-
ing tenant from the field, unless in rare instances when he is
specially favoured by the landlord. It is difficult to suggest any
satisfactory explanation of this strange phenomenon. Hope, con-
ceit, ignorance, disgust of some other trade, and the absence of
any professional education, or the memory of former profits, may
induce those who have little to lose, to risk their all ; but among
this crowd of adventurers are mingled men of capital and prac-
tical experience, and these, though never the highest bidders, are
sometimes chosen by judicious landlords. Time will do much
to correct, but probably not to remove this anomaly, which the
apparent ease, wealth, and independence of rural life, the crowded
state of all professions, and the limited area of our soil, all tend
to maintain.

Purchased Food and Manures.

In spite of bad times, agriculture has in many respects made
material progress since 1853. It is true there are iew " model "
farmers now-a-days. Hedges are not so regularly pruned, walls
are kept in worse repair, weeds are less carefully eradicated, and
fields in general may have a less tidy appearance ; but the great
essentials of deep and thorough cultivation and liberal manuring
have not been neglected. The quantity of purchased manure
has largely increased. In the article of 1853, a leading farmer,
Mr. Hope, of Fentonbarns, is quoted as purchasing 1/. worth of
manure for every acre he farmed ; but noAv, besides a large
increase of artificial food consumed by stock, the manure-bill
has risen upon all the best managed farms to nearly 21. per acre.
In the evidence before the Royal Commission already alluded
to, Mr, Henderson, of Longniddry, stated that on 750 acres he
expended from 1200Z. to 1400Z. on portable manure, and 1000/.
on feeding stuffs, being together from 2400/. to 2500/.

Ten Years of Juist Lothian FarDihuj. 103

One iTianuiv-clc\il(>r told the Commission that he sold 190,000/.
worth of manuies every year to farmers in the three Lothians ;
and in llatldingtonshire, the arable area of which little exceeds
100,000 acres, more than 100,000/. are annually expended.*

Peruvian guano and bones, either dissolved or simply crushed,
constitute the great bulk of this portable manure. Farmers in
Scotland are very reluctant to buy anv manufactured article,
whether manure or feeding stuff, abovit the composition of which
there is any mystery, (^uack medicines, special sheep-dips,
condiments, concentrated manures, and nostrums of all descrip-
tions, are rejected for articles that tell what they are. The
proportion in which the guano and bones are mixed varies
according to the nature of the soil or the fancy of the farmer ;
but ecpial weights of each, or one-third guano and two-thirds
bones, are common mixtures. vYs a top-dressing for young
grass, nitrate of soda, from its recent comparative cheapness, has
become a favourite ; and for autumnal-sown wheat, rape-cake
has long been considered an excellent manure.

War/es.

Increased cultivation has also involved a large additional
expense under the head of labour since 1853, or if we look
back to 1843 the amount will be found to be nearly doubled.
By a carefully prepared statement recently published by several
leading farmers in the country, it appears that the cost of labour,
including the accounts of smiths, wrights, 6cc,, is 2/. per acre.

Upon I'arms where, say 15 years ago, the monthly account for
female and casual labour amounted to 10/. the charge may now
be safely estimated at 30/.

Seed- Corn.

In the varieties of grain cultivated there are several changes to
note since 1853. Hunter's and Fenton still hold their ground as
favourite white wheats, and the variety known as Mongoswell's
or Hall's is also in request. Red wheats are much used : many of
these, brouglit from the south of England, succeed admirably the
first season, but are found to degenerate on being repeated.
Hopetoun, once a favourite, has nearly disappeared, and the
variety for late sowing known as " April " has given place to
barley, as indeed all wheat has done to some extent.

Mr. Patrick Shirriff of Haddington, a veteran agriculturist,
who has the merit of having formerly introduced the Mongoswell's

* When statistios are given the reader is reminded of the very limited area of
East Lothian, which is rather less than that of Middlesex, and only a little larger
than that of tlie Isle of Wight.

104 Ten Years of East Lothian Farniiiuj.

and Hopetoun wheat, as well as the Hopetoun oat, has for several
years devoted most of his attention to experiments in wheat. In
nursery fashion, he grows annually not less than a hundred
varieties, including' every species known to the British Islands.
The practical result of this labour is the introduction of two new
varieties which have already taken their place in the wheat-fields
of the county. One of these is a red, the other a white wheat;
both are bearded, and bear the name of the propagator.

Of barley, which is cultivated to an increasing extent, there is
but one variety used, the Chevalier ; whilst the oat is represented
by the Potato, the Angus, the Hopetoun, the Sandy, and to a
small extent, by the Black Tartarian. Of these the Potato-oat
is the favourite in rich deep soils, whilst the Sandy has the
merit of being least easily shaken by the wind, which frequently
causes great losses in East Lothian. Hailstorms of a destructive
character are, on the other hand, all but unknown ; one instance
only being on record, which occurred a few years ago, when the
crops in several parishes were almost destroyed.

Root-Croys.

The turnip-crop has always been an important one in East
Lothian, but formerly that importance rested in a great mea-
sure upon the fact that it formed the surest foundation for a
remunerative grain-crop, whilst now the roots, grown for their
own sakes, form the chief object of the agriculturist. Of the
softer turnips the white globe occupies the largest space, but it
has been to some extent displaced by the Greystone, a species
recently introduced, which produces the heaviest crop of any
variety. Being very soft and liable to injury from frost, its use
is restricted to the early part of the season — a circumstance which
must always tend to circumscribe the extent of its cultivation.

Skirving's purple-top succeeds the earlier turnips, whilst green
and yellow varieties follow as the food of the farm till Christ-
mas, when the swede becomes the reliance of the farmer, for all
animals save breeding-ewes, for which white or yellow turnips
are reserved.

An annual sweepstakes, which is held under the auspices of
the local agricultural society, shows the following as the highest
weights on the best five acres of turnips of different sorts : —
Swedes, 31 tons 18 cwt. ; yellow, 36 tons 10 cwt. ; white, 45
tons per acre.

While the turnip-crop is thus increasing in importance, the
potato has, during the last decade, created almost a revolution in
the agriculture of the country, has largely contributed to the rise
in the value of land, has brought very considerable sums into
the district, and has attracted to it a population special! v devoted

Ten Years of East Lothian FanniiKj. 105

to its cultivation, an Irish iminijjration having followed the
cherished root of the sister kingdom. One variety of the potato,
the " Regent," occupies probably nine-tenths of the whole space
devoted to the cultivation of the plant. Till lately Orkney
Reds were much used, but as coloured varieties cannot now
be sold so long as white are to be had, the fiat of the con-
sumers has regulated the proceedings of the grower. Flukes,
which command the highest price in the London markets, and
are largely produced in Yorkshire, cannot be profitably grown in
Scotland.

In early localities, and particularly in sandy districts near the
sea, the Delmahoy Early takes the place of the Regent. This
potato is planted in E'^ebruary or March, and sold for consump-
tion in summer, when the ground is immediately sown with
a " stolen " crop of rape upon Avhich sheep are pastured in
winter or spring. The potato is a chief cause of the largely
increased bill for manures, as it receives 5 or 6 cwt. of guano
and bones per acre, besides taking the lion's share of the home-
made dung, thus leaving to the manure-merchant the task of
making good the deficiency to other crops. The potato, how-
ever, can be profitably cultivated upon good soils without dung
by using a liberal supply, say from 8 to 10 cwts. per acre, oi
judiciously mixed portable? manures ; and this fact has recently
formed a subject of judicial inc^uiry in a protracted law-suit,
which has considerably agitated, and very much divided, the
agricultural mind in this county.

Stock - Fa rtn ing.

Recent ill-success in husbandry has made the farmer turn an
anxious eye to see if flocks and herds will restore the Ijalance
of his accounts, and certainly if hope is to be found in any
quarter it must Ije in beef, mutton, and wool. It is, however,
found almost impossible in East Lothian to lay down land in
permanent pasture, as the (juality'of the turf rapidly deteriorates,
and grass Is therefore ploughed down In one or two years. Thus,
though a marked increase is becoming apparent In the number
of sheep kept, the additional food consists of roots, vetches, cak{>,
and corn, and the question therefore to be solved is, whether
arable land, rented at 2/. to 4/. per acre can be adapted to stock-
farming, an occupation which has hitherto been carried on upon
a class of farms much less heavily rented.

In reference to artificial food, the Report of 1858 says: —
"Ten years ago cake and corn Avere used \\\ considerable (juan-
tities ; sounder views, however, on the profitableness ol the
em})loyment of cake and corn are rapidly extending. Sonu; ol
the best feeders in the count v now nwike use ol little cnkc or

lOG Ten Years af East Lutldau Fanviiuj.

corn, having been convinced that payment for the cake is not
obtained, and that manure can be had cheaper in the form of
guano."

It is almost unnecessary to say that this opinion is no longer
held. It is, in fact, absolutely reversed. Corn has recently been
given to stock in large quantities because it is cheap ; but cake is
still more universally a staple article of food, the manure pro-
duced by it being more valuable than that resulting from grain.
Whilst cattle are now allowed more artificial food than formerly,
it is also liberally supplied to sheep, whether folded on turnips
during winter or on grass in summer. Several farmers now
expend ol. per acre for extra food on grass depastured by sheep.
In one recent instance a flock-master fed 11 sheep per acre on 24
acres of young grass, at an expense for cake of 80/. The sheep
paid for their keep, and he was enabled to continue the field in
grass a second year, which without this artificial aid would have
been impossible. Foreign oil-cake is more in use than home-
made, which is not considered to possess superiority equivalent
to its greater price ; whilst we have the authority of Professor
Anderson for saying that is more frequently adulterated than
sea-borne cake.

Hardly any cattle are bred in the county, the north of England
supplying the great majority of the oxen fed in it. They arc
brought by English dealers to our autumnal fairs at all ages,
from calves to 3-year olds ; a large proportion of them, and
nearly all the heaviest, again cross the border, being carried back
fat in spring to the manufacturing districts of Yorkshire and Lan-
cashire. It is rather singular that while Scotch farmers look to
the south for their supply of lean cattle, the black polled bullocks
of Dumfries and Galloway are nearly all sent to England, many
going to Norfolk and the Eastern counties. Thus Englishmen
and Scots seem mutually to prefer animals bred at a distance,
which must add considerably to their respective prices.

Breeds of Stock.

Since 1853 a weekly sale by auction for fat stock has been
established in Haddington, which is found very convenient both
for buyers and sellers and a great boon to local butchers, whilst
a fair for store cattle in October has been instituted with great
success at Linton, the whole supply of oxen being brought from
England.

In the Lothians, Galloways are thought to be slow feeders, but
a cross between the kindred race of Aberdeen and the shorthorn
is highly esteemed ; though it can very seldom be got, as the north-
eastern counties are unable fully to supply their local wants.

Much discussion has recently taken place as to whether any of

Ten Years of Ea.st Lothian Fannimj. 107

the English breetls of sheep might with advantage he introduced
into East Lothian.

Southdowns have long been bred ^ in the county, several flocks
having been carefully cultivated for half a century ; but though
Avell adapted to the -soil and climate, they are not on the increase,
and the rams are chiefly used to propagate cross-bred lambs for
spring consumption. Lincolns, which were tried to a small
extent, have been abandoned ; butCotswolds in limited numbers
may be said to have made good their footing, whilst several
farmers have resolved to try the handsome Down sheep of Shrop-
shire. Last autumn, tempted by a temporary cheapness caused
by drought in the south, several flock-masters brought 300 or 400
Hampshire Downs to East Lothian, in order to try their merits.
As regards the ewes, the experiment is still in progress ; but the
wethers have been sold at a fair profit. Being strcjng sheep, they
fetch large prices ; but their appetite seems quite in propf)rtion
to their bulk, and their personal appearance is certainly not
prepossessing. It is, indeed, difiicult to imagine how this breed
could establish itself in countries so near the home of the South-
down, of which it seems but an uncouth imitation.

The sheep most prevalent in East Lothian are Cheviots and
half-breds. The former are chiefly fed during winter, being pur-
chased in autumn from mountain districts. The half-bred (the
produce of a Cheviot ewe by a Leicester ram) is the sheep which
dots the summer pastures, and supplies the chief part of the ewes
bought for breeding, though pure Cheviots are also used. Pure
Leicester flocks are kept in considerable and increasing numbers,
the rams of which are readily sold by auction, though at prices
much below those obtained by fashionable breeders in other
counties. Leicester sheep, fat for the butcher, are almost unsale-
able at home, and are sent to Newcastle, where the colliers do
not object to a little tallow. It is the general opinion of farmers
that no stationarv breeding-stock will pay unless the males can be
sold for rams. Half-bred ewes are bought each September and
October for about 40.f. from breeders in pastoral districts who
have already reared crops of lambs from them, and are sold fat
during the following summer, leaving generally a shilling or two
of profit for their keep, as well as their fleeces and lambs. The
profit from feeding sheep during the present winter is large ;
Cheviots folded on turnips, with an allowance of cake or corn,
leaving about l^-., and in some instances Is. Ad. per week.

Implements.

Scotland, in all that pertains to its agricultural implements,
the cerealia arma of the husbandman, is thoroughly utilitarian ;
and as a rule the machines of the farm are simpler and cheaper,

108 Ten Years of East Lutliian Farming.

though not always so perfect, as those which surprise the spec-
tator from their ingenuity, and ahnost perplex him by their
numbers, at the Royal Agricultural Shows,

The fixed steam threshing-mill is a marked, and all but uni-
versal feature in every farm — the ubiquitous chimney-stalk being
to the " toon " what the church-spire is to the country village ;
but in addition to these we have to some extent borrowed from
England the locomotive threshing-mill, several of which now
ply for hire, and are often found convenient.

In several important respects the furnishings of Scottish home-
steads are much inferior to those of the best specimens of
English farms. Apparatus for steaming food, light and useful
locomotive-engines driving pulpers or chaff-cutters, mills lor
grinding corn, (5cc., are all much more common in England than
in Scotland, where cattle and sheep are still for the most part led
on roots and straw given separately, frequently without the
addition of corn and cake ; moreover, great establishments lor
the manufacture of agricultural implements like those of the
Croskills, Ransomes, and Howards, have no counterparts beyond
the Tweed. Nevertheless, one very important implement is, we
imagine, much more universally in use in the Lothians than
in England, since, practically speaking, the whole corn-crop
and even a portion of the bean-crop is now cut by the reaping-
machine. The paper of 1853 marks the turning-point in the
history of this great invention, which, after long neglect, has at
length become indispensable in our harvest-field.

"The crops in East Lothian," says the writer of the former
account, " are cut principally by the sickle, occasional fields
only being cut by the scythe. Last season a considerable number
of Bell's reapers were in use, but comparatively little was cut by
them."

It is with something like regret that we have to record that
Bell's machine — the parent of all really useful reapers — is
now almost a thing of the past, and its posterity bear very
little resemblance to their progenitor. One gentleman farmer,
indeed, clings to " Bell " with true British tenacity, and with half-
a-dozen of these implements reaps the crop of four large farms,
containing fields which in some counties would be called moun-
tainous. The large machines of Burgess and Key, acting on the
screw principle, next occupied the farmer's attention ; but these
in their turn have been superseded, and, with Croskill's "Bell,"
they now rot in corners, looking, in comparison to modern reapers,
like skeletons of the Mammoth and the Mastodon among recent
animals.

During the harvest of 1860, a competition of reapers was held
in East Lothian, under the auspices of the local Agricultural

Ten Years of J'Msf Lothian Farming. 109

Society, when the pre-eminent utility of the smaller and simpler
machines, founded on Hussey's principle, was at once and con-
clusively established. Since then, practical experience, as well
as subse([uent competitions, have thoroughly established the
light and handy reaper, as the machine by which the crop
of the county is to be cut. There are one or two farmers
who still reap their crop with the sickle, and they are likely to
continue to do so. No improvement was ever accepted with
absolute uniformity by an existing generation. It is not long
since we saw an old gentleman (a good shot and a good sports-
man he was too), who, despising percussion-caps, adhered man-
fully to the " flint-and-steel " of his early days.

With rare exceptions, however, each farm is now furnished
with a reaper, and several of the more extensive have three or four.
They are all 2-horse machines ; and it Is found expedient that
the driver sliould drive from a seat, and not ride, as was usual
at first.

All these reapers act upon the principle of manual delivery ;
but, though not yet in general use, we expect soon to see a
" self-deliverer" added to the implements of every large farm.
In a county such as East Lothian, where labour In harvest is
often scarce, and where destructive winds are only too com-
mon, it Is of great consequence to be able to send a single man
with a pair of horses into a large field of standing corn, and have
it cut down whilst the labourers are at work in other parts of
the farm. This we have repeatedly seen done with one of
M'Cormack's reapers.

By reaping-machines the work is much better as well as more
cheaply done than by manual labour, and the sheaves are sooner
fit to he carried, since the pipes of the straw, not being bruised
and crushed together as they are by the grasp of the labourer,
allow the air to enter much more freely into the shock. The
great majority of the reaping-machines are the work of local
makers ; who, besides producing as efficient Implements as any
in the world, are on tlie spot to rectify whatever may go wrong, and
to stand surety for their workmanship.

Steam Cultivation.

While the reaping-machine has thus pushed the reaping-hook
aside, a still more important agent, steam-power, has offered its
giant assistance for the upheaving and disintegration of the soil.
Passing over two earlier, l)ut Inedcctual attempts to introduce the
steam-plough into the county, we must assign to Mr. Saddler, of
Ferrygate, the merit of first establishing this mode of cultivation
in l']ast Lothian, Five sets of steam-apparatus are now at work,
the property of tenant farmers, and, singularly enough, while

110 Ten Years of East Lofhiau Farvniifj.

three different systems — Fowler's, Howard's and Coleman's — are
represented, tliey may all be seen at work from one spot, being
used on adjacent farms. The five owners of these ploughs are
all equally satisfied with their investments, and if, after hearing
what each has to say, we are asked which system is best, we are
inclined to reply, with Sir Roger de Coverley, that " a great
deal may be said on both sides."

While the progress of steam-cultivation may be considered as
certain, it has of course its difficulties to contend with, and several
of these are not common to both divisions of Great Britain. In
many parts of England the smallness of the fields, the nature of
the fences, and probably the want of leases — obstacles unknown
in East Lothian, may interpose, whilst with us the chief impedi-
ment is the number of boulder-stones which underlie the surface
of the soil. These have been for the most part already removed
froin the share of the ordinary plough ; but just as the Great
Eastern found in the Atlantic rocks unknown to ships of lighter
draft, so the steam-plough falls foul of a new crop of earth-fast
stones, the fertile source of breakage and delay. Then in that
important item, the saving of horse-power, the northern farmer
has less to gain than his brother in the south, because he has been
accustomed to work his land with fewer horses ; one pair to each
70 acres being the usual provision.

The distance too of the steam-plough manufactories is another,
though a minor, drawback, involving a cost of from 30/. to GO/,
for the conveyance by rail of a steam-apparatus, and, besides,
causing much delay Avhenever any breakage takes place.

Plans for joint ownership in steam-ploughs, or for letting
them out for hire, have not stood the test of practical experience.
No one will go to the expense of preparing his land for the
occasional use of steam, and thus, if the hired plough makes its
appearance it is broken by stones ; and, besides, each farmer
wishes to have his land cultivated at about the same time.

The benefits conferred by the steam-plough have not, however,
been confined to its direct operation. The results of its powerful
and thorough cultivation have led to an inquiry into the whole
subject, which has given a great impulse to deep cultivation
generally. Subsoil-ploughs of various forms have been brought
into requisition, and stones have been dug up till fields have
been so covered with the disinterred blocks, that, for the time,
they looked like churchyards.

The whole theoi-y upon which ploughing-matches used to be
conducted has been knocked on the head. Formerly the suc-
cessful ploughman was he who sliced the soil into the neatest
ridges, and who turned it over most compactly. The subsoil
being jnessed and consolidated below by the weight of the

Ten Year X of East Lotliian Farminr/. Ill

plough, tlie further object seemed to be to render the surface as
impervious as possible to the influence of the atmosphere, and the
pattern of the whole work was apparently taken from the plough-
man's own corded breeches. All this is now changed ; and if
the earth is but sufficiently torn, tossed, tumbled about, and, if
possible, tunnelled into, it matters not how rough the work may
seem.

Leases and Covenants.

While agriculture is thus advancing with the times, it presents
one aspect in which little or no change has been effected for cen-
turies. Scotland boasts, and with reason, of its system of leases,
assuring, as they do, to the tenant, the possession of his i'arm for
19 or 21 years, and thus giving him time to reap the benefit of the
large outlay which is generally made during the first half of his
occupancy ; and there can be little doubt that, but for such leases,
it could never have emerged from its original barrenness. And
yet, if these leases are the boast of Scottish agriculture, they are
also its shame, betraying, by their lengthiness, their vexatious
enactments, their not unfrequent inapplicability to the lands
demised, and their general ignorance of agriculture, that they
originated in a lawyer's office.

Their rigid prescription not only of the acreage to be assigned
to each crop, but of the amount of seed to be sown, without even
any allowance for the casual failure of a crop ; their imdue
restrictions on the sale of produce, besides annoyances chiefly
connected with the preservation of game, too often give them
the character of the fifteenth, rather than of the nineteenth cen-
tury.

How comes it, then, that such documents are tolerated by
a practical and not too sul^missive people ? Simply because they
are looked upon alike by landlord and tenant as a dead letter.
Still they are not altogether innoxious ; they are the skeleton in
the farmer's cupboard, and if he should be so unfortunate as to
give offence by asserting his rights in one direction, he may
always be hit in another by the enforcement of penalties incurred
under the lease.

OtJier Chavf/es.

Among the men connected with the soil of East Lothian, whether
as owners, occupiers, or labourers, many changes have taken
place since 1853. Death has removed, amongst others, those
excellent, considerate landlords, the Earl of lladtlington, and Mr.
Hope of Luffiiess ; the latter of whom, not long before his death,
gave strong proof of his fairness by ordering the; ground-game
which abcHinded on his estate to be reduced Avithin perfectly

112 Ten Years of Ecut Lothian Farminq.

harmless limits. Mr. Aitcliison of Alderston has also passed
away, an able man who, with great success, farmed his own
property. For fully 40 years he kept a flock of Southdown sheep,
frequently refreshing the blood from the Babraham stock, and
gaining many prizes in agricultural shows. Mr. Brodie of
Abbeymain, the leading farmer of his day, an account of whose
system of management is given in the 'Journal' of 1853, has
also gone from among us, and his farm is not now occupied by
his family.

The competition for land has, however, been the great cause
of change among the occupants of farms, the old tenants at the
end of a lease being almost always outbid by strangers. Descend-
ing in the scale, we find that a still greater change is taking
place among the labouring population. In former times, when
son succeeded father in the occupancy of a farm, the "hinds"
were as stationary as their masters, but the ties that bound them
together are now nearly broken. New masters employ new men,
and the old scattered cottages in which old ploughmen used to
end their days are all cleared away, and the failing " hind " has
to find a refuge in the town or the village, where he must live
by the poor-rate and not by occasional country work, \oung
ploughmen seem now to seek change for the sake of change, and
the hiring-market — a foul blot in the agricultural escutcheon — is
every year more and more crowded by a thoughtless mob, of
whom their fathers would have been ashamed.

Comparatively few East Lothian ploughmen have as yet
availed themselves of the legal relief afforded to age or infirmity
when combined with poverty, but the number is on the increase ;
and, in consequence of this, much lamentation is made over what
is called a sad change in the character of the Scottish peasant.
The change, we maintain, is caused by circumstances over
which the ploughmen have no control whatever, and of all classes
of society they are perhaps the least to blame in the matter.
The fierce competition for land, and the consequent rise in the
rents of farms, have driven farmers to buy labour in the cheapest
market ; and the landowner, pressed by the tenant for buildings
to shelter horse and ox, has reduced to a minimum the dwelling-
houses on his property.

Let us see the effect of this. Suppose that, there were standing
on a farm somewhat dilapidated cottages, inhabited by ten families,
and that the heads of some of these were past their prime. The
farm is re-let, and the old occupant gives place to a new tenant at
an advanced rent. New cottages are built, but in place of the ten
old tenements pulled down, seven only are erected. The oldest
" hinds " are dismissed, and labourers from a distance, chiefly
Lish, do their work. Formerly the three extruded sexagenarians

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 113

would have ended tlieir days in the country, working as they
were able, their wages, supplemented by such aid as tlieir rela-
tions could afford, sufficing to maintain them in comp.arativo
comfort ; whereas now, thoy have no alternative but to shrink
into a town, where no fitting work is to be found, and where
they must of necessity become paupers.

VVe have thus endeavoured to sketch the history and the
fortunes of East Lothian farming during the last ten years, the
scene closing upon a tenantry struggling in days of low-priced
grain with over-rented arable land. Their position has been to
some extent caused by their own imprudence, but probably still
more by a combination of circumstances beyond their control.
Whilst certainly grave, if not desponding, farmers have not given
way to despair, but are endeavouring as far as possible to adapt
the agriculture of the county to the altered times ; in proverbial
language, ^^ tlicy set a stont heart to a stay hracT

At the same time, however, many men who now farm because
in youth they followed the profession which for generations had
been that of their fathers, are resolved that no son of theirs shall
be brought up to spend his life in a struggle which offers a
poorer prospect of success, and a worse return for thought and
capital, than any other trade or profession.

Camptoion, Drem.

VIII. — On some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. By Dr,
Augustus Voelckeu.

In an uncivilised, thinly populated country, or in a colony where
the backwoodman's axe has to clear the ground before anything
else can be done, the agricultural settler has little or no opportunity
for turning to account the knowledge of agricultural chemistry
which he may chance to possess. The case is different in a highly
civilized and densely-peopled country like England, where oppor-
tunities arise for the useful application of chemical principles,
physiology, botany, and other branches of natural science,
just in proportion as agriculture is advancing in conjunction with
Avealth and population. Therefore we need not wonder that
many eminent and successful practical farmers should be anxious
to provide a better general education for their sons than they
themselves enjoyed, and to afford them instruction in the rudi-
ments of the particular sciences which bear upon agriculture.

Fully admitting that, even in a highly civilised country,
scientific attainments confer far less material benefits upon the
cultivator of the soil than acquaintance with the practice of suc-
cessful farmers and the possession of good business habits, we

VOL. I. — s. S. I

114 SoiJie Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

may yet assert that neglect of chemical principles frequently leads
to practical mistakes. Such mistakes are often unconsciously
committed by excellent farmers, on whose authority good, as well
as bad practices are handed on from one generation to another.

The causes of barrenness or unproductiveness of soils are
numerous : some depending more obviously on the imperfect
chemical constitution of the land, may be conveniently termed
chemical causes of barrenness ; others, like those manifesting
themselves in too close or too loose, or otherwise faulty a texture,
may be termed physical or mechanical causes of unproductiveness.
It is not easy to separate the one class from the other ; for in reality
the imperfect chemical constitution of land frequently is but the
result of its bad physical condition. Thus, undrained, unmiti-
gated clay soil, does not yield to the growing plant a sufficiency
of available potash, phosphoric acid, lime, &c., and may be said
to be unproductive as much on account of its lack of available
plant-food, as on account of its bad physical condition.

A recognition of the cause of sterility in land often enables the
intelligent agriculturist to apply the proper means of restoration.
Barrenness and comparative unproductiveness may be due to a
variety of causes : sometimes it arises from a deficiency in the soil
of something essential to the healthy growth of plants ; in another
soil it is the result of the presence of something injurious to vegeta-
tion ; and in a third case it is the impervious character of the land
which causes it to be unproductive. Any defect must be dis-
covered before it can be supplied, and the remedy against any
injurious substance present in the land is not likely to be found
so long as its precise chemical composition is unknown.

It is not a little amusing to find agricultural writers speaking
of the bad chemical composition, or the poor physical cha-
racter of the land as the cause of its unproductiveness. What
the chemical composition of the land really is, or what is the
precise nature of its poor physical character, for obvious reasons,
we are not told. No wonder that plain and intelligent men
lightly esteem the chemical theories and the physical explanations
by which attempts are made to enlighten the agricultural mind
as to the causes of barrenness of soils.

The present paper only professes to treat of certain of the
causes of barrenness, which I have myself investigated more
particularly.

In reviewing the inquiries purposely instituted by me, and the
cases with which I became incidentally acquainted, soils appear
to be barren, or more or less unproductive, —

1. When they contain something inimical to vegetation.

2. When they are deficient in one or more important con-
stituents which enter into the organization of the living plant.

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 115

3. When they contain too larg^c a preponderance even of a
valuable ingredient, such as organic matter, sand, lime, and even
clay.

4. When there is but a thin layer of soil resting on the bare
rock.

5. When the land is thin and rests on an impervious and
very thick clay subsoil, or on subsoils containing something in-
jurious to vegetation.

6. When they are badly drained. '

7. When they are affected by a bad climate.

Under these seven divisions, I purpose to treat the subject of
the present communication.

1. Soils are barren or unproductive when they contain something
injurious to vegetation.

There is a very ready test for ascertaining whether a soil is
likely to contain an injurious constituent. All that is necessary is
to put a strip of litmus-paper in contact with wet soil ; if the blue
colour of the test-paper turns rapidly red, the soil is certain to
contain something injurious to plant-life. All good and fertile
soils either have no effect upon red or blue litmus-paper, or show
a slight alkaline reaction ; that is to say, in a wet condition they
restore the blue colour to reddened litmus-paper.

The acid reaction which some barren or unproductive soils
exhibit, I find is caused, —

a. Either by an excess of organic acids (humic acids),

b. Or by the presence of small quantities of sulphate of iron
— green vitriol.

Another substance which occurs in some barren soils is bi-
sulphide of iron or iron pyrites, a compound of 2 equivalents of
sulphur and 1 of iron. It is generally found in soils in which
the presence of green vitriol is readily detected, and, like the
latter, is a most undesirable soil-constituent. The simultaneous
occurrence of these two compounds is explained by the fact that
green vitriol is the result of the oxydation of iron pyrites in con-
tact with air and moisture, the iron of the iron pyrites becomes
converted into protoxide of iron, and the sulphur into sulphuric
acid, which, combining together, produce sulphate of iron or
green vitriol. Even as small a proportion as ^ per cent, of green
vitriol renders a soil almost barren ; and on land containing
little more than 1 per cent, nothing whatever can grow.

In many unproductive soils I have found protoxide of iron
in considerable quantities, and scarcely any red peroxides — a
sure indication of poor cultivation. This, however, in many
instances, may be greatly improved by better drainage, sub-
soiling, grubbing, and other mechanical operations tending to

I 2

116 Some Causes of Uiqjrodactweness in Soils.

admit the air more freely into the soil. Protoxide of iron mani-
fests itself by the bluish-grey or dark-green colour which may be
noticed in many clay subsoils and stiff tenacious soils improperly
cultivated. A change of colour from blue to reddish-brown is
justly regarded as a sure sign of improved condition, for it indi-
cates the transformation of protoxide into peroxide of iron, and
tells of the free admission of air into the land.

Protoxide of iron being as insoluble in water as peroxide, can
hardly be regarded in itself as a plant-poison ; it is rather a test
of the absence of atmospheric oxygen from the soil. The readi-
ness with which protoxide of iron unites with more oxygen and
produces red oxide, is seen in the rapid change of colour which
blue clay dug out of a drain assumes superficially within a few
hours on exposure to the air. Protoxide of iron, indeed, is one
of the most delicate tests for oxygen, and thus, though it is not
injurious to plants in the same sense as green vitriol, which is
readily soluble in water, nevertheless, its presence implies a
complete exclusion of the air, without which vegetation cannot
remain in a healthy state for any length of time.

Chloride of sodium, or ct)mmon salt, generally occurs in an
injurious proportion in land recently reclaimed from the sea, or
in soils inundated by the sea. It is true, that some grasses and
maritime plants grow well enough on such spots ; but cereals, roots,
clover, and other forage crops, do not grow well on land con-
stantly kept in a very wet state, and do not ripen unless the heat
of the sun during the summer months has had a fair chance of
penetrating the surface-soil, tand expelling any superabundance of
moisture. Soils recently reclaimed from the sea, or land acci-
dentally saturated with sea-water exhibit in dry weather white
cfllorescences, which consist mainly of common salt, as may be
readily ascertained by the taste. Although the soil originally is
impregnated with but a dilute solution of salt, the evaporation
from the surface in dry weather causes the liquid brought
upwards by capillary attraction to become by degrees charged
with salt to such an extent, that portions crystallize out in the
shape of a white saline efflorescence which is injurious to vegeta-
tion. I am acquainted with land which, irrigated purposely
with sea-water, under the mistaken idea of improving it, has been
rendered unproductive for several seasons in succession.

In some soils in India and Hungary nitrates of potash and
soda, two very valuable salts, occur in proportions injurious to
vegetation. Like solutions of common salt, nitrates give rise to
saline efflorescences, which invariably indicate an unhealthy
condition of the land, and frequently destroy vegetation altogether.
Common salt, nitrates of soda and potash, it is Avell known, are
used as manuring agents ; nevertheless they are injurious when

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 117

their proportion in a soil is such as to produce white saline
efflorescences.

Lest it should be thought that the preceding remarks apply more
to imaginary cases than to real ones, I may be permitted to give
some illustrations representing instances of barren soils which
have been actually brought under my notice.

Soils abounding in organic (humic) acids are very common
in all peaty districts. From a large number of analyses of such
soils, 1 will select only one, from Meare near Bridgewater : —

Analysis of Feat Land.

Dried at 212°.

*''Organic matter (abounding in humic acids) .. i)7'760

Oxides of iron and alumina •536

Carbonate of lime "855

Magnesia •144:

Potash -131

Soda •065

Phosphoric acid '053

Sulphuric acid *051

Silica -405

100-000
*Contaiuing nitrogen 1*428

In its natural state this soil contained no less than 88 per cent, of
water. The percentage of mineral matter, and more especially
that of phosphoric acid, is very trifling, and the excess of organic
acids is incompatible with a healthy vegetation. Lime and marl,
as is well known, have the power of neutralising the humic acids
in such peaty soils. They add, moreover, to the mineral matter
of the soil, and certainly are the best means of improving it.
I will next place before the reader

An Anali/sis of iSoil from the Haarlem Lake, in Holland,

Dried at 212° F.

*Organic matter and water of combination 14'71

Oxides of iron and alumina 9'27

Sulphate of protoxide of iron (green vitriol) '74

Bi-snlphide of iron (iron pyrites) "71

Sulphuric acid united with oxide of iron as basic sulphate) -. .|,„

of iron J

Sulphate of lime 1"72

Magnesia -73

Phosphoric acid '27

Potash -53

Soda ^32

Chloride of sodium "Oi*

Insoluble siliceous matter (clay) G9"83

lOO^OO

^Containing nitrogen '52

Equal to amnioniLi '63

118 Some Causes of Unjirodtictiveness in Soils.

This soil abounds in all the mineral elements which enter into
the composition of the ashes of plants, and is especially rich in
phosphoric acid ; it moreover contains a considerable proportion
of organic matter capable of yielding on decomposition rather
more than ^ per cent of ammonia, but unfortunately it is impreg-
nated with sulphate of iron, which neutralises all its useful pro-
perties, rendering it unproductive.

An interesting circumstance may be mentioned in connection
with the field from which this soil was taken. Before it came
into the hands of its present proprietor, the land was only slightly
scratched on the surface as a preparation for the next crop, and
then produced scanty but still remunerative crops. Not satisfied
with that yield, Mr. Wilson, an enterprising Englishman, the
present owner of th(> land, ploughed deep, and, to his astonish-
ment, found this attempt to improve its productiveness result in
a complete failure of his corn-crop. A heavy dressing of farm-
yard-manure proved e(|ually unsuccessful, or rather aggravated
the evil ; for after the application of the dung even the deeper-
rooting weeds were affected, and nothing but surface weeds would
grow. This curious circumstance led to a chemical examina-
tion, which was committed to me.

The preliminary examination showed at once that there was
present some injurious substance, for the wetted soil strongly
discoloured the blue litmus-paper. The acid reaction I found
was caused by sulphate of iron, and I also succeeded in detecting
sulphide of iron, or iron pyrites. As long as the land was
left unploughed, the latter constituent was not brought to the
surface, and most of the iron existing there originally was no
doubt gradually removed into the subsoil by the rain, which
accounts for the better crops when the subsoil was unstirred. By
deep cultivation the sulphide of iron was turned up, and air
admitted into the soil more freely, which had the effect of
oxydizing the iron pyrites, and changing it into green vitriol. As
the available mineral elements and soluble salts in the land were
already rather in excess of the amount which is beneficial, the
dressing of farmyard-manure, containing a good deal of soluble
matter, could only aggravate the evil.

The proper remedy for such a state of things is a heavy dressing
of lime, marl, or chalk ; for quicklime, or the lime in marl or
chalk, decomposes sulphate of iron, and uniting with the liberated
sulphuric acid, gives rise to gypsum — a useful fertiliser — and to
oxide of iron, which occurs in all fertile soils. In the case
before us, my recommendation to apply a heavy dressing of lime
was adopted with complete success.

Since green vitriol, as well as iron pyrites, sometimes occur in
subsoils, care should be taken to test the subsoil, before the opera-

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 119

tion of subsoil ploughing is commenced, for such injurious matters,
which it is better not to bring to the surface.

The particulars here related afford a complete answer to those
who maintain that chemical analyses of soils are of no use what-
ever to the farmer.

The following analysis shows the

Composition of a Soil reclaimed from the Sea on the Hampshire Coast.

Water 5-45

Organic matter and water of combination ., ,. 9'93

Oxides of iron and alumina 7'18

Sulpliate of protoxide of iron (green vitriol) .. .. 1"39

Bi-sulpliide of iron (iron pyrites) '78

Sulj^liate of lime -34

Magnesia '51

Chloride of sodium '04

Potash and soda '83

Insoluble siliceous matter 73'55

. 100-00
The constitution of this soil is very similar to that reclaimed
from the Haarlem Lake ; the remarks on the preceding analysis,
therefore, apply with equal force to this, which is given as an
example of the occurrence of land in England poisoned by green
vitriol.

More recently I had an opportunity of inspecting a field near
Sandy in Bedfordshire, a portion of which was so completely
sterile, that not a weed nor a single blade of grass could be seen
on it. The following is its analysis : —

Composition of a completely Barren Soil from Sandy, in Bedfordshire.

Dried at 212=' F.

Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 4*27

Oxides of iron and alumina 3*84

Phosphoric acid '09

Sulphate of lime '85

Magnesia -96

Potash and soda -47

Sulphate of iron (green vitriol) 1-05

Sulphide of iron (iron pyrites) '50

Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly sand) 87'91

100-00
Here again we find sulphate as well as sulphide of iron in appre-
ciable quantities. Tested with litmus-paper, this soil showed
a strong acid reaction, and [when heatecl in a platinum capsule
gave off pungent fumes of sulphurous acid. Soils in a healthy
condition, it may be remarked, when heated, do not give off
pungent vapours, smelling like those of a lighted sulphur match.
This is in itself a tolerably sure sign of the presence of injurious
iron compounds.

120 Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

^ The colour of this soil was dark grey, almost black, and yet it
will be seen the proportion of organic matter in it is not large.
The dark colour was therefore due not so much to organic
matter as to finely divided sulphide of iron. In such a state of
division, very little of it imparts a dark grey colour, and par-
ticularly obnoxious properties, to a large mass of soil.

Where such dark soils occur, the air in the neighbourhood
at times is charged with foetid vapours, smelling faintly like
rotten eggs. This smell is produced by the action of the car-
bonic acid of the air upon the black sulphide of iron in the soil.
Acids, not excepting the weak carbonic acid, in the diluted state
in which it occurs in the atmosphere, on the point of mixture
disengages from sulphide of iron sulphuretted hydrogen, a gas
highly injurious to vegetable as well as animal life. Chemical
reactions are generally intensified bv elevation of temperature,
and thus the emission of sulphuretted hydrogen from land im-
pregnated with black sulphide of iron, is greater in summer than
in winter. In my opinion, suljihuretted hydrogen does more
mischief than even green vitriol, for direct experiments made by
I3r. Christison and others have shown that, even in a highly
diluted state, sulphuretted hydrogen is injurious to vegetation,
and, in a more concentrated state, is capable of destroying vege-
table life as readily as that of animals.

All saline matters which are very soluble in water, as noticed
above, are injurious to vegetation when they occur in the soil in
too large a proportion. Tlie practical question is. What is too
large a proportion ? An answer has been given lately to this
question in the highly interesting scientific experiments on the
nutrition of plants by Professor Kncjp of Leipsig, who found that
solutions containing in all not more than 1 part of soluble mineral
matter to 1000 parts of water are fully as strong as liquids should
be from which plants are to derive food and grow luxuriantly.
In solutions stronger than this, plants either grow languidly or die
altogether, although the same mineral substances are employed
Avhich, in a highly diluted state, are most active promoters of
vegetation. If such be the case with solutions, my own experi-
ence leads me to infer that the soil itself should not contain more
than iVth per cent, of such soluble substances, and therefore that
soils which contain several per cent, of common salt, nitrate of
lime, or chloride of potassium, are unfit to maintain vegetable
life in a healthy state.

I have met with several extraordinary soils, upon which nothing
would grow, evidently because they were overcharged with
soluble saline matters. An example of that kind is given in the
subjoined analysis : —

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 121

Composition of a Soil impregnated with Salt and Nitrates.

Moisture 10-86

"Organic matter 4-84

Oxides of iron and alumina 11'28

')•?.

ul)

Phosphoric acid

Equal to bone-earth (5-08)

Carbonate of lime ['r21

Nitrate oflimo 2-32

Containing nitric acid (1-52G)

Chloride of sodium 11-61

Chloride of potassium 2-31

Insoluble siliceous matter 49-22

100-00

*Coutaiuing nitrogen -24

Equal to ammonia -29

We have here a large proportion of common salt, and also
chloride of potassium and nitrate of lime, two salts still more
soluble in water than chloride of sodium. The nitrate of lime is
evidently a product of the oxydation of animal matter, the
presence of which in this curious soil, is distinctly evidenced by
the simultaneous occurrence of phosphate of lime (bone-earth) in
considerable quantities. We have here presented to us a true
nitre-eai'th, which, valuable as it is unquestionably when applied
as a manure, is far too rich in saline constituents to be cultivated
like an ordinary soil.

In concluding this section of the subject, it may be well again
to mention briefly the various matters and conditions which render
some soils barren or unproductive. They are the following : —

a. Superabundance of organic (humic) acids.

b. Sulphate of iron (green vitriol), even when present in the

soil in small quantities.

c. Sulphide of iron (iron pyrites), and especially finely

divided black sulphide of iron, which, in the smallest
proportions, is most pernicious to plants.

d. Abundance of protoxide of iron, and absence of peroxide,

indicating a bad physical condition of the land.
€. Chloride of sodium (common salt) in proportions of iVth

per cent, and upwards.
f. Nitrates and all soluble saline matter, in quantities exceed-
ing small fractions of 1 per cent, of the whole mass of soil.

2. Soils are unproductive wheri they are defcient in one or more
constituents found in the ashes of our cultivated plants.

By far the greatest number of soils, as we find them in this and
other countries, are poor in phosphoric acid ; for which reason
phosphates in an available condition are generally useful as fer-
tilisers. In some soils this deficit is very marked. Thus in the
following analyses we have merely traces of phosphoric acid : —

122 Some Causes of iinprodiictiveness in Soils.

Composition of Soils deficient in Phosphoric Acid.

Sandy Soil.

Clay Soils.

Moisture

,. 10-OG

.. .. 12-37

Oro;,anic mntter

3-02 .. .

7-09

fr07

Oxides of iron and alumina

4-34 .. .

,. 13-3G

.... 14-45

Phosphoric acid

•07 .. .

•04

•01

Sulpliate of lime

•10 .. .

•17

•14

Carbonate of lime

•17 ...

•24

.... none

Potash and soda

•20 .. ,

1-G5

.. .. 1^21

Magnesia

•41 .. .

•46

•37

Insoluble siliceous matter

9V63 .. .

. G6-33

.... G3-38

100-00 100-00 100-00

I have selected for illustration one sandy and two clay soils, in
order to show that the same defect may exist in soils of dia-
metrically opposite physical characters.

Those who pretend to form a just estimate of the agricultural
capabilities of soils by mere classification and examination of
their mechanical condition make as great a mistake as men who
hastily form an opinion of the quality of a sample of guano or
superphosphate by handling and smelling it.

Experience, indeed, shows that there are poor clays as well as
poor sands, and on the other hand rich clay soils and very fertile
sands. If we examine carefully these differences in the only way
in which they can be examined with certainty, that is, by
chemical analysis, we often find the relative productiveness of
different soils to be intimately connected either with an abund-
ance or a deficiency of phosphoric acid.

Another substance which sometimes only exhibits traces, and
often occurs in too small a proportion, is lime. The practice of
liming and marling which prevails in many districts of England
is a proof of the want of lime in many light as well as heavy
soils. In the following Table I have incorporated the analyses
of various kinds of soils which are all benefited by the direct
application of lime or chalk : —

Composition of Soils deficient in Lime.

No. 1. Xo. 2. Xo. 3. No. 4.

Sandy soil
from Kent.

Moisture

Organic matter 3-62

Oxides of iron and alumina 7-50

Phosphoric acid -13

Sulphuric acid

Lime -43

Magnesia '49

Potash and soda -48

Insoluble siliceous matter .. 87-35

100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00

Stiff Pasture

Clay soil

Peaty land

from

from

from Kenmoor,

Somersetshire.

Demarara.

7-03

Somersetshire.

lG-80

12-58

55-32

16^08

11-10

13^08

-48

-06

..

•11

1-20

•75

•13

-97

1-56

•33

•54

•45

•52

1-02

64-36

6?72

27-81

Some Causes of Unjiroductiveness in Soils. 123 •

This list might have been much extended, but the preceding
examples will suffice in illustration of the deficiency of lime in
peaty, clay, sandy, and pasture soils.

The want of alkalies, more especially of potash, is, I believe, a
far more common cause of the comparative sterility which cha-
racterises some land than is generally believed to be the case.
If we look at the composition of the ashes of all farm-produce,
Ave shall find that a very large proportion of their ashes consists
of potash. This constituent, of course, must be supplied either
by the soil or in the manure with which the latter is dressed.
Root-crops especially leave ashes rich in potash ; and as turnips
are often grown on land naturally poor in alkalies, with purely
mineral superphosphate of lime, and nothing else, and the
produce is sometimes sold off the land, or not consumed entirely
upon it, the land may thus become drained of its available
potash to an injurious extent. Perhaps the failure of roots on
land which formerly produced good crops may have something
to do with the gradual exhaustion of their available alkalies.

At any rate it is well to remember that many soils are very
poor in alkalies, and that in all fertile soils the amount of potash
and soda is always considerable.

It is a prevailing idea that light sandy land alone is likely to
be deficient in potash ; and it is true that this want does not so
frequently affect clay land ; but at the same time it is no less a
fact that some clays are almost as poor in alkalies as the worst
kinds of sandy soils. In proof of this 1 may give the sub-
joined recent analyses of mine of a strong clay and a light sandy
soil : —

Composition of a Strong Clay and a Sandy Soil.

strong Light

Clay Soil. ' Sandy Soil.

Moisture 4-01 .. ..

Organic matter and water of combination 8'51 .... (5"92

Oxides of iron and alumina 11*24 .... 64o

Phosphoric acid '06 .... "ll

Sulphuric acid "19

Lime none .... '65

Magnesia '46 .. .. -39

Alkalies (potash and soda) "45 .. .. "So

Insoluble siliceous matter 75"08 .... 85"17

Chiefly (clay) .. .. (sand)

100-00 100-00

In these two soils potash and soda are evidently deficient ; at
the same time it will be noticed that both are poor in phosphoric
acid, that there is no lime in the clay, and but little in the sandy
soil.

Unproductive soils are seldom deficient in one substance only :

124 So)nc Cai/scs of Unproductireness in Soils.

for this reason many cannot be made fertile by the application of
manures which, like lime, supply only one material. Sandy soils,
more especially, often stand as much in need of lime as of phos-
phoric acid or of potash. Tlieir general deficiency in all these
important elements of fertility is clearly seen in the following
analysis, showing the

Composition of a Poor Sandi/ Soil.

Moisture 4"78

Organic matter .. .. 1'03

Oxides of ifoii and alumina 1'72

Lime -19

Magnesia "10

Potasli -23

Soda none

Pliosphoric acid "04

Sulphuric acid '12

Carbonic acid and chlorine traces

Insoluble siliceous matter '.)1,T'J

Consisting of:

Siiicii 89-32

Alumina TSl

Lime none

!Nragnesia 'Sfi

Potash -L"*

Soda -15

100-00
It will be seen at a glance that tliis is a hungry soil, which
requires lime as well as phosphoric acid and alkalies. As long
as we do not possess a cheap source of potash, well made yard-
dung, liberally applied, seems to be our only generally available
resource for maintaining or increasing the productiveness of
soils as poor and defective as this. It is upon soils of that
character that town-sewage produces the best economical result,
when applied in large quantities.

We have seen in this section that soils often are unproductive
because they are deficient

a. In lime.

b. In phosphoric acid.

c. In potash, or,

d. In two or more of these important ash-constituents of

plants.

3. Soils are barren or unproductive token they contain a large pre-
ponderance of organic matter, or of .mnd, livie, or even of pure
clay.

The most fertile soils, such as alluvial-deposit or warp land,
may be regarded as intimate mechanical mixtures of clay, lime,
sand, and organic matter, in which no one of these essential com-

Some Causes of Unproducticcncss in Soils. 125

ponents preponderates, so as to give the mixture the character
of a clay or sandy soil, or to show in too marked degree the
properties of lime or organic matter.

On the other hand, sterility or comparative unproductiveness is
often caused by such a preponderance in the soil of one of these.
Each of these ingredients of all fertile soils possesses special
chemical and physical properties conducive to the development
of plants, and it will be readily understood how essential to
luxuriance of growth is their intimate and nicely-proportioned
mixture, such as we find it in alluvial soils.

The following Table illustrates the composition of soils which
are unproductive on account of the preponderance of one of the
four chief materials of all soils : —

Composition of unproductive Peat-land, Clay, Calcareous and Sandy Soils.

Xo. 1. No. '2. No. 3. No. 4.

Calcareous Soil. Santly Soil. Clay Soil. Peaty Soli.

Moisture 2-65

Organic matter and water of com-) .^q r.ai 49-(r

bination j "

Oxides of iron and alumina .. .. -780 5-93 10-95 10-8S

Carbonate of lime 73-807 -39 -86 2-29

Magnesia -825) .. -26 -75

Potash and soda traces f -28 -39 '90

Phosphoric acid -242 .. -10 -OG

Sulphuric acid 1-546 .. -30 1-04

Silica 16-710) 86-19

Insoluble siliceous matter (fine clay) 6-090 j .. 79-20 35-01

100-000 100-00 100-00 100-00

4. Soils are unproductive to/ien a thin layer rests on the bare rock.

I am acquainted with several localities Avhere the soil is of
excellent quality, but too near to the rock to be productive. We
should bear this in mind in discussing the state of agriculture in
different counties or districts, as this obstacle will baffle the utmost
skill of the agriculturist though he might fertilise the barren
sand or reclaim the unhealthy swamp.

5. Soils are unproductive ichen they rest on impervious or extensive
clay subsoils, ivhich are not easily drained efficiently.

A good deal of clay land. I believe, is unproductive solely
because it rests on impervious stiff clay, probably 30 or 40 feet
in thickness. Ordinary drainage, I fear, although it improves
the character of such clay land to some extent, does not make
sufficient impression upon its physical condition. Clay soils of
that description occur in the lias formation, where they are known
as scouring-land, on account of the tendency of the herbage to
scour sheep and cattle. Some time ago I made an analysis of

126 Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

notoriously bad land from Shepton-Mallet, Somersetshire. The
soil contained in 100 parts : —

Moisture 4-54

Organic matter aud water of combiuatiou 14-40

Oxides of iron and ahimina and phosplioric acid .. 14*45

Sulphate of lime '26

Carbonate of lime 14'80

Magnesia '9(5

Totash and soda "93

Insoluble siliceous matter (cliidly clay) 49'GG

100-00

This soil had rather a dark colour which was due partly to
protoxide of iron, partly to the large proportion of organic matter,
which enters into its composition. Although not injurious in
itself, an excess of organic matter, as well as of protoxide of iron,
indicates a condition of the land which is unfavourable to the
healthy growth of plants. In a porous, well-cultivated soil, freely
penetrated bv the atmosphere, the accumulation of organic matter
never becomes excessive, nor does such a soil contain much
protoxide of iron. The presence of the latter in considerable
proportions always shows that the soil is not sufficiently aerated
to produce a healthy and nutritious herbage.

Chemically considered this soil contains an abundance of all
the mineral elements which enter into the composition of the
ashes of plants, and it is found in practice that farmyard-manure
does not produce any marked effect upon it, which shows plainly
that it is not the want of plant-food that renders it unproductive.
These lias lands rest upon a clay bed of great depth which
approaches very near to the surface.

In many instances, therefore, under-drainage, besides taking off
the surface water, produces little alteration in the condition of
the surface soil, for the simple reason that it is too thin, and the
clay sub-soil bed too tenacious and too deep to be penetrated
to any extent by the ameliorating influence of the atmosphere.
These tenacious soils are consequently damaged by excess of water
and coldness, which retard vegetation and make it very gradual
during the early months of the year.

5. Soils are unproductive when the Drainage is defective.
Under this head 1 need not offer any observations, for it is
now perfectly well known that bad drainage is a frequent source
of sterility in land, which has only to be thoroughly drained in
order to become permanently improved.

6. Soils are unproductive ichen their pliysical characters are had.
An actual case lately brought under my notice will best

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 127

illustrate this part of my subject. A correspondent wrote to me
last spring from Churchdown, near Gloucester.

" Sir, — I have this day forwai'ded to you a bottle of earth for
analysis. The land has been laid down to permanent pasture
five years, the first year or two it grew luxuriant crops, but now
it is almost worthless, although it has been dressed with different
kinds of compost. With the analysis, please to give me your
opinion what sort of manure would be most likely to bring it to
a state of fertility."

On analysis the soil yielded the following results : —

Moisture 4-04

Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 11"6G

Oxides of iron and alumina and phosphoric acid .. in-G7

Carbonate of hme 10"03

Magnesia 1'38

Potash and soda I'Ol

Insoluble siliceous matter (clay) 55"21

100-00

The soil ought to yield good crops, for it contains all the
elements of food required by plants. It certainly is not unpro-
ductive because it is deficient in any one element of vegetable
food, but I believe, because its physical condition is such as not
to allow the plants to avail themselves of the food which is
unquestionably present in the soil. It contains, it will be seen,
a good deal of organic matter, and is a very stiff and retentive
soil, difficult to drain. Surface water is removed readily enough
by drainage from such land : this is one thing ; but to make it
sufficiently porous by draining to allow the water and after it the
air to pass through the soil, is quite another matter. The soil
appears to have grown luxuriant crops a year or two after
it was laid down in permanent grass, and then to have become
almost worthless. I can readily understand this, and have no
doubt, if the land were again broken up, its previous fertility
would be restored without the addition of any manure. Reten-
tive clay-soils having a composition like this do not require
manure, but must be penetrated by air, which is freely admitted
when land is broken up. In the course of a year or two, however,
the pores of such land again became closed up ; and in conse-
quence of the exclusion of the air, and not for want of mineral
food, vegetation becomes languid in growth.

On land like this it is only waste to apply manures, especially
if the season should be dry. Artificials, such as guano or
ammoniacal salts, then do positive harm ; and in wet but warm
seasons, water itself is the best means of developing, so to speak,
the natural resources of the land and encouraging the growth of

128 Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils.

the herbage. It is not for mc to say whether it is profitable to
put such land down in permanent pasture or to break it up and
adopt upon it a rotation suited to heavy clay land ; but of this I
am quite certain, that the steam-cultivator would do wonders on
these cold, stiff clays, for they contain, practically speaking, an
inexhaustible store of mineral food of plants, which, however,
has to be unlocked as it were by the air. The more roughly stiff
clavs are broken up the better ; the less the farmer meddles with
the land when once broken up, the more effectually the air will
find access into the land. No imjdement can possibly pulverise
clays so effectually as air and irost, if time be allowed.

Having spoken at some length of a variety of conditions
which appear to me to affect the fertility of land, my subject
perhaps may be usefully brought to a close by a brief statement
of what in my opinion the chemical analysis of soils can de-
termine, and what it necessarily must leave undecided.

In the first place I would remark, that the chemical analyses of
soils can give very decided answers to the following questions :

1. Whether or not barrenness is caused by the presence of an
injurious substance, such as sulphate of iron or sulphide of iron?

2. Whether soils contain common salt, nitrates, or other
soluble salts, that are useful when highly diluted, but injurious
when they occur too abundantly ?

3. Whether or not barrenness is caused by the preponderance
of—

Organic matter, or
Lime, or
Sand, or
Pure clay ?

4. Whether sterility is caused by the absence or deficiency
of—

a. Lime.

h. Phosphoric acid.

c. Alkalies, especially potash.

d. Or available mineral (ash-constituents) matters generally ?

5. Whether clays are fertile or barren ?

G. Whether or not clays are usefully burnt and used in that
state as manure?

7. Whether or not land will be improved by liming?

8. Whether it is better to apply lime or marl or clay on a
particular soil ?

9. Whether special manures, such as superphosphate or ammo-
niacal salts, can be used (of course discreetlv) without permanently
injuring the land, or whether the farmer should rather depend
upon the liberal application of farmyard-manure that he may
restore to the land all the elements of fertility removed in the crops?

Some Causes of Unproductiveness in Soils. 129

10. What kind of artificial manures are best suited to soils of
various composition ?

11. Whether deep-ploughing or steam-cultivation is likely to
be useful as a means of developing the natural stores of plant-
food in the soil ?

12. Whether the food of plants in the soil exists in an avail-
able or inert condition ?

On all these points, chemical analysis can give reliable in-
formation, provided the results are rightly interpreted. The
best answer to a question does not necessarily convey useful
information to him who puts it : in the same way the most
careful analysis of a soil does not always give a satisfactory
•answer even on points which a chemist can pronounce with some
degree of assurance. A knowledge of chemistry does not put
the analyst of a soil into possession of that amount of acquaint-
ance with practical agriculture which is necessary to enable
him to interpret analytical results, and to recognise their bearing
upon purely practical matters. In the hands of a chemist per-
fectly ignorant of the first rudiments of practical agriculture,
soil-analyses, it appears to me, are about as useful as, without
comment, they are to a farmer who does not know the difference
between phosphate and sulphate of lime, or between potash and
soda.

There was a time when I thought, with many other young
chemists, that soil-analyses would do everything for the farmer ;
three or four years of further experience and hard study rather
inclined me to side with those men who consider that they are of
no practical utility whatever ; and now, after eighteen years of
continued occupation with chemico-agricultural pursuits and, I
"trust, with more matured judgment, I have come to the conclusion
that there is hardly any subject so full of practical interest to the
farmer as that of the chemistry of soils, — the longer and more
sminutely soil-investigations are' carried on by competent men,
the greater, I am convinced, will be their practical utility.

As pointed out in the preceding brief summary, already a
g^ood many practical questions may be put to the agricultural
chemist with propriety, which I should have hesitated or alto-
gether refused to answer three or four years ago.

It remains for me now to mention briefly some points relating
to barrenness of soils on which chemical analysis cannot supply
any definite information.

It cannot decide, amongst others : —

1. Whether barrenness is caused by defective drainage.

2. To what extent sterility is affected by a bad physical con-
dition of the land.

VOL. I. — S.S. K

130 Stocking Land.

3. How far unproductiveness is connected with the climate,
aspect, and elevation of the land in question.

4. That a soil is barren simply because there is too little of
it, or

5. That it is unproductive simply because a thin surface soil
rests on a stiff clay-subsoil of great depth.

6. What is the relative productiveness of different soils.
There are other matters in connection with this subject on

Avhich soil-analyses cannot possibly j^ive any information. It is
well to bear in mind that some matters affecting the fertility of
land can be most positively decided by analysis, and others not;
for if this is neglected the agriculturist will not reap the practical
benefit which the chemical examination of soils is well calculated
to confer in most cases.

12, Sdlishury Square,

London, E.C, Jan. 18G5.

IX. — On Stocking Land. By the Rev. J. L. Breeeton.

jNIy deae Me. Feeee, —

In complying with your request that I would send you
some account of my farm, I must ask you to make allowance for
the unprofessional character of my statement. It is, however, to
the best of my knowledge, correct ; and the valuations have been
revised and approved by men of experience and repute as prac-
tical farmers. Though I do not profess to be an adept in the
art of farming, I have for some years followed it as a pursuit of
much interest ; and if I have not realised a profit equivalent to
the cost and trouble bestowed, I think I have learnt some of the
conditions under which farming in England may be hopefully
carried on, as not only a pleasant but a remunerative occupation.
An opinion seems now to be rapidly spreading through England,
that the plants which the farmer grows will not yield him so much
profit as the animals he feeds. Whilst free trade and cheapened
transport have greatly affected the value of corn, animal produc-
tions — such as fresh meat, milk, butter, and wool — command a
sale that justifies the use of even the more costly grain in pro-
viding them. The moist climate of North Devon had led me
for some years to anticipate this opinion, and to think that my
neighbours were wrong in making corn the principal object of
their industrious efforts ; a gradual impoverishment of them-
selves and their land seemed to me too probable a result from

Stocking Land. 131

persisting in their system. I was aware how much, in my native
county of Norfolk, under the four-course system, the growth of
corn had been increased by interposing a large growth of food
for stock, and how this multiplication of the stock had been still
further promoted by the purchase of food grown elsewhere, espe-
cially oil-cake. But I believed that the time Avas coming when,
even in Norfolk, the stock would be found to be most remu-
nerative, and that, consequently, the farmer would only grow corn
so far as it harmonises with the profitable keeping of stock.
Under such management much valuable manure would be made,
which would indefinitely increase the productive powers of the
land ; and (unless prices changed) the increased production,
whether ripened into straw or used in a green state, would still
further increase the amount of the stock reared or fed. But
under these circumstances a total change would take place In the
relations of capital and land. Hitherto the question has been,
How many acres can be most profitably cultivated by a limited
capital ? Henceforth it will rather be, How much capital can
be profitably expended on a limited area ?

1 have no doubt that these and similar questions have sug-
gested themselves to you and many others. For myself, they
have guided my course for the last few years, and have led to
the following result, which, if you think it of any value, you are
very welcome to publish.

My glebe consists of about 30 acres of grass-land, which used
to let at a rent of 55/. I have farmed it for some years in
connection with various parcels of land which I have temporarily
rented in the neighbourhood. The general result has been that
from keeping an extra quantity of stock, and particularly from
folding sheep with corn upon my grass, its value has been con-
siderably increased.* It would be perhaps a fair account of pre-
vious improvement to value Its gross rent for the present year at
about 3/. per acre, or 100/. In order to make myself as free as
possible of tillage farming, I have for some time used sea-sand

* The sheep are all Long-wools. We have in Devonshire a class of these
valuable sheep known as " Notts." There are two if not three divisions of this
old breed : the " Bampton," the " South Ham," and perhaps the hornless " Dart-
moor." They have, of course, been much intermixed with the Leicesters ever since
Mr. Bakewell gave to that particular class of the English Long-wools their supe-
riority and notoriety. But the greater delicacy or " fineness " of the Leicesters
has made many of the Devonshire flock-masters cling to the old breed, which have
better constitutions. I have, for some years, taken pains to procure good ewes of
the old stock, and have put to them some of the best Cotswold and Lincoln
rams. The result has been very satisfactory, and you will see from my accounts
that the thirty rams I sold last year averaged more than &l. each. As they
were all sold to farmers in the neighbourhood, these were not fancy prices ; and
I am told that my ''JSew Devons " are thought likely to make a very valuable
flock.

K 2

132 Stocking Land.

instead of straw as bedding for cattle. I have also used a com-
pound meal (the ingredients of which 1 subjoin*) as the principal
accessory to the grass and hay. The turnips I have purchased
were all used for the sheep ; none for the bullocks and horses.
The oats and straw bought were for the stables. My practice
has been to charge the whole cost (including labour) of the stables
to the farm, and to credit the farm with 125. per week for every
horse used for riding or carriage. In order to increase my hay-
crop, I hired some other grass-land, the rent for which is included
in the charge for fodder.

Statement of Farm Accounts on the Glebe, West BucMand ; from Oct 1st,
1863, to Oct. 1st, 1864.

A. Cost of Stock.

By Valuation Oct. 1863 :—

Bullocks,

£. s. d. £. s. d. £. s. d.

2 Kerry cows in-calf 10

4 Devons 40

3 Yearlings 19 10

1 Calf 3

78 10

Jlwses.

2 Brood-mares 62

2 Cobs, 4 and 5 years .. .. 66

2 Carriage-iwnies 40

1 4-ycar-old filly 25

3 3-year-old fillies 76

2 2-year-old (colt and filly) .. 30

2 Yearling colts 20

5 Sundry ponies 37

350

Sheep.

45 Ewes, at 59s 132 15

32 Old ewes, at 50s 80

41 Ewe-lambs, at 35s 71 15

40 Ram-lambs, at 60s 120

3 Rams, at 100s 15

419 10

848

By rurchase during the year : —

BidlocJcs.

7 Dairy cows and 4 calves 113 2 6

Carryforward £961 2 6

* Cattle-food.—l have for four or five years been in the habit of buying linseed,
■wheat, peas, beans, maize, barley, and oats, and grinding them in about equal
proportions with one cwt. per ton of aniseed and fenugreek. The present cost of
my mixture is about 11/. per ton.

Stocking Land. 133

£. s. d. £. s. d.
Brought forward .... 961 2 6

Horses.

1 Pony 12

Sheep.

4 Kentish ewes, at 40s.
77 Devon Nott. ewes, at 49s.
80 „ 50s.

30 „ 57s.

1 Cots wold ram, at 25?.

1 Lincoln „ 25/.

1 „ „ hired 30Z.

Journeys and expenses for rams) ry . o q

" 586 3

£1547 5 6
B. Expenditure during the Year.

Eent and taxes 100

Labour 251 6 10

Manures : —

Sea-sand for bedding 57 17 11

Other manures 26 16

84 13 11

Purchased Food : —

Hay by valuation Oct. 1863 .. 90

Cattle-food 300

Roots 100

Straw, oats and hired keep .. 167 4 7

657 4 7

Tradesmen's bills 36 6 9

1129 12 1
. Hay and turnips in stock, Oct. 1st 1864, by) oac q q
valuation /

824 12 1

2371 17 7

C. Sales and Valuation.
Sales : —

Bidlocks.

4 Bullocks and 1 calf .. .. 77 17 6
Milk at IM. per gallon .. .. 140 1

217 18 6

Horses.
Brood-mare and 2 cobs .. ..130

2 Ponies 17

Keep of 3 stable-horses, at 12s.'l gg ,r) q
per week /

243 12

461 10 6

Carry forward £461 10 6

134 Stocking Land.

£. s. d. £. s. d.
'^ Brought forward .. .. 461 10 6

Sheep.

31 Kams by auction 184 17 6

64 Draft ewes 149 19 6

yheep killed for the house , . .. 21 3

356

Valuation : —

Bidlochs,

12 Cows, 1 yearling and 4 calves .. .. 193 16

Horses.

1 Brood-maro 25

2 Carriage- ponies 30

1 5-year-old marc . . . . . . 35

3 4-year-old mares 150

2 3-year-old „ 50

2 2-ycar-old , 40

4 sundry ponies 47

817 10 6

Sheep.
210 Ewes, at 63s.
21 Fat sheep, at 50s.
37 Ewe lambs, at 45s,
32 Ram „ at 80s,
1 Cotswold ram, 25?.
1 Lincoln „ 2ol. ' ■"'.

4 " New Devon " rams, 20Z.
Wool IbOl.

1144 15

1715 11
£2533 1 6

Farm— Creditor 2533 1 6

„ —Debtor 2371 17 7

Balance £161 3 11

Showing a profit of 1617. 3s. llcf., in addition to the manure, which is valued
at " not less than 2007,"

I am aware that the above statement is open to many challenges ;
but being an accurate account of transactions recorded and classi-
fied for my own satisfaction, and not for publication, it may
perhaps be the most suggestive form in which to put before your
readers the gross result of farming on the principle of purchasing
corn, &c., to feed stock. I will add a few explanations in antici-
pation of some of the queries that may be raised.

Stocking Land. 135

The Valuations. — The first of these was made by myself and
my bailiff, towards the end of 1863. It was afterwards revised,
item by item, by the late Mr, George Burden of Kerscott, who
was esteemed as one of the best farmers, and I must add, in
memory of his recent death, one of the best men in North Devon.
The second valuation was made by Mr. Mortimore of VVarkleigh,
whose judgment and experience both as a farmer and valuer are
recognised with great confidence throughout the district. The
standard of the two valuations is not, I believe, very different.
I mean that the excess of the later valuation is not to be attributed
to any exceptional rise in prices, but to the increased value of the
animals themselves, owing in the sheep to careful drafting, and
in horses, sheep, and bullocks, to the growth of young stock,
and to their generally improved condition in consequence of the
liberal expenditure on food and attendance.

The Labour. — This item will appear less exceptionally high
if viewed in reference to the capital rather than the acreage with
which it is connected. It represents the whole expense of super-
vision, attendance on the stock, cartage of manure, haymaking,
&c. I have, it is true, paid higher wages than the neighbour-
hood, but have, I think, had a proportionate return of cheerful
work. In attendance upon stock, it is of course possible to reduce
the cost of labour very much by organisation and regularity.
In this I acknowledge that I see how very great improvement
might be made on my farm ; but I have been much occupied
in other matters myself, and the importance of these things is not
always perceived, and very seldom enforced by subordinates. It
is the coachman only who is likely to see that all the harness
is adjusted to the team. The uninterrupted attention required
to ensure economy either in a small or large farm is generally the
secret of the real farmer's success and the amateur's failures ; in
my own case, if I do not quite acknowledge failure, I can see
daily that my affairs might have been much more economically
managed ; but my only means of controlling waste has been a
steady adherence to certain principles. I have thought that the
true economy of labour was to be found, not in lower wages, but
in a higher quality of workmen.

The following analysis of my labour-bills may give some
explanation of the amount incurred : —

£. £. s. d.

I Stables (approximately).. .. 36]
Scks-.: :: :: :: :: i lesisn
Steam-engine, hay and manure 64 j

Supervision 40

Horse-labour (hired) 43 12 9

Sand. — Passing to the next item of expenditure, the principal

136 Stocking Land.

manure purchased has been sea-sand. This has been used as
bedding for bullocks, horses, and sheep, instead of straw. It cost.
me Qs. Sd. per ton, as I have to draw it 8 miles. Speaking
roughly, I think that for bedding purposes the ton of sand goes
as far as the ton of straw, while the latter costs me 30s. per ton„
Except in the stables, 1 do not like to see any straw used for litter,
though it has not been easy to break through the feeling of the
attendants that the comfort of the animals required its use. The
economy, however, of converting straw into food instead of litter
seems so great, that 1 have persevered in the use of the sand ; and
I think my bailiff and men would generally now give it the pre-
ference. The effect of the manure has been very striking : in the
last very dry summer, 22 acres yielded fully 45 tons of hay ;
the quick action of the sand-manure has been noticed much by
the neighbouring farmers ; it has also been found that the sheep
can be pastured upon the ground very much sooner alter the sand,
than after straw-manure. This distinction may depend upon
the salt which it contains. The remarkable healthiness of my
stock, in spite of the number kept to the acre, may perhaps be
attributed to the free use of this sand ; though something is due
to the high situation on the borders of Exmoor, and much to the
healthy action of the slaty subsoil.

Quantity of Stock to the Acre. — The balance-sheet does not of
itself explain the number of stock kept on the 30 acres, because it
does not give the dates of all the purchases, or the quantity of extra
land, the temporary hire of which is included in the general
charge for purchased food. But I think I can say with certainty
that the average number of sheep kept during the year upon the
30 acres has been 150. For a few weeks there were less than
this number, in order to favour the hay-crop ; but after the hay
season there were, for some weeks, as many as 300 on the glebe.

As a general rule, the ewes have a range of about 6 acres to
80 head. During the winter they have chaff, turnips, and a
little meal. The present allowance (the highest in the year) is,
for 80 ewes on the glebe, —

s. d.

2 lb. of meal each, at lj(7 4 2 a day.

, i ton of roots, 14 lbs. a-piecc, at 12s. .. 6 0,,

90 lbs. of chaff (f hay, at 4?. 10s.,) „ n.
i straw, at 30s.) ^ o u „

13 2 or 2(1. a day for each ewe.
Another lot of ewes in better condition, and having a better
range of pasture, are receiving only ^ lb. of meal and 5 lbs. of
roots, without any chaff. During the summer months the ewes
graze in large folds, frequently changed, so as to allow the grass
to freshen behind them. According to the weather, they will lie in

Stocking Land. 137

the same plot from six days to three weeks. Mj own judgment
is, that by constantly interchanging the fold and the scythe, the
necessary range, even of breeding-ewes, may be very much lessened.
In wet weather, we have trouble with their feet if they are allowed
to tread the ground overmuch. But I am gradually forming yards
to be asphalted, in which I propose to have them always fed in very
wet weather, allowing them the open pasture at other times. I
think the scythe or mowing-machine should be constantly at
work ; during the past year I was cutting grass with the machine
from the beginning of May to the middle of November. In the
spring and autumn the mown grass has been further cut into
chaff, with straw for the bullocks and horses ; but the sheep have
had it carried to their troughs fresh cut.

The 70 lambs were with their mothers to the beginning of June ;
I then hired a piece of clover for them for one month. On the
1st of July they came back to the glebe, and have ever since been
upon it in two pens, 38 ewes and 32 rams. Since the 1st of July, the
ewe lambs have been over about 10 acres of ground, in part twice
(the scythe intervening), in folds of i to i of an acre : the ram
lambs have been kept rather closer. The ewe lambs had about
I" lb. of meal each from June to October, then i lb., and since
Christmas ^ lb., the maximum allowed to ewes. The rams
began with the same quantity, but were pushed forward more
quickly, and from October to the present time have been getting
rather more than 1 lb. each. On the day I write (Jan. 21st), I
have ascertained that the following are the actual allowances : —

32 ram hogs : — s. d.

5 cwts. of roots, at 12s 3 a day.

36 lbs. meal, at lie? 3 9 „

15 lbs. chaff 6 „

7 3 or 2f d per sheep a day.
37 ewe hogs : — s. d.

.5 cwts. of roots 3 a day.

18 lbs. meal 1 lOi „

15 lbs. chaff 6

Attendance on —
80 ewes.
32 ram hogs.
37 ewe hogs.

5 43 or IfcZ. per sheep a day.

149 sheep. One man's wages, 12s. a week, or Id. a week per sheep.
These allowances represent the highest cost of keep during the
year ; and I find that they correspond very nearly with the allow-
ance at the corresponding period of last year. The bullocks are
having 10 lbs. of the mixed food, and the horses 4 lbs., with hay
and straw chaff, but no roots.

138 Stocking Land.

The following memorandum of the consumption of food on the
14th of October will represent very nearly the average consumption
of meal in the year : —

- lbs.

' 20 fatting ewes 28

32 ram lambs 36

38 ewe lambs 12

6 bullocks 60

2 ditto 9

5 horses 20

165

Milh. — The charge for milk, 1 \d. per gallon, is I am told higher
than the average price of new milk. I have found that in buying
or selling new milk in small (juantities in this village, the price has
been generally 'dd. a quart ; but as the greater part was used or
converted into butter in my own family, and the skim-milk con-
sumed by lambs, colts, &c,, was charged to the farm at od. a gallon,
the price of l\d. may perhaps be higher than the average, and so
represent on my balance sheet an unreasonable profit. But if so,
it explains itself.

The cows have generally been bought fresh-calved, and
milked so long as their milk seemed to pay for their food, and
then fatted. We have thought that, fed upon meal, they lay
on more fat while milking than when fed on roots. In one
case I fatted a cow and some sheep on meal and water alone, but
without very accurately noting the comparative cost. The cow,
however, was considered to have done remarkably well, and the
beef was unusually juicy. Her allowance was 12 lbs. of food,
with water ad libitum. I mean to repeat this experiment, and
have ordered two cows just dry to be put on the same allowance ;
their cost would be 15rf. per day, besides attendance. My bailiff
thinks they require a small quantity of chaff in addition to the
meal, in order to assist them in raising the cud ; but not for the
sake of bulk, which is sufhciently supplied by water — as nutriment
is by the various ingredients of the meal.

Roots. — The turnips purchased during the year have cost about
125, Qd. per ton, and about 150 tons have been consumed on the
glebe. This quantity had been thought by my bailiff necessary
both for the ewes, and more especially for the rams he was pre-
paring for sale, but I think that the same money expended in meal
would have gone further: I have not, however, wished to depart
too abruptly from the track of experience ; though it is clear that
the circumstances of the case are so altered by the relative cheap-
ness of corn and dearness of cattle that the cautious observers of
precedents may be more likely to mislead than the more adven-
turous.

Stocking Land. 139

Thus much I think I can assert as to the result of some perse-
vering- experiments in the new direction : —

1. That it is quite possible to feed animals on purchased food
alone.

2. That a mixture of the common grains and pulse, e.g. linseed,
pease, beans, wheat, &c., may be made for 10/. per ton, which
will fatten any animal.

3. That the addition of seasoning (aniseed and fenugreek are
those that I have used for five years) at an additional cost of 1/.
per ton appears to pay well in the added relish and the improved
condition of the animals.*

4. That doubling the quantity of linseed, though raising the
price, probably gives quite a proportionate increase to the value
of the mixture.

5. That by the use of this meal the farmer may fearlessly
increase his stock without adding to his acres ; and yet, by that
increase of stock, must greatly increase the productiveness of his
farm. This consideration both suggested and replied to the
following exclamation of a neighbouring farmer : " Mr. Brereton,
if you'm doing all this on 30 acres, I'm thinking what's to become
of the landlords."

6. That the use of sea-sand as bedding will enable the farmer
either to dispense with straw, or to use it more profitably as food ;
and that besides possessing, according to its quality, manurial
properties, the sand acts as a purifier of the land, and seems to
allow of a closer herding of stock than might be otherwise safe.

7. That sheep may be folded on grass with great advantage, if
some shelter and dry treading is provided in adjacent yards
during excessively wet weather ; but the bullocks and horses do
best in yards and sheds, the grass grown after the fold being cut
by the scythe and carried to them.

The success of such stock-farming as I have advocated must
evidently turn upon the acquirement of good judgment in the
selection of stock — a faculty which will henceforth assume
increased importance in the training of the young farmer. I
should like therefore to append to this statement a few words
on the subject of agricultural education, in which you know I am
much interested. Without for one moment wishing to decide
the question, adhuc sub judice, of the advantage of combining
special learning with general — of preparing a boy at once for the
duties of manhood and for those of his own calling — I cannot
help protesting against the summary manner in which this ques-

* Two years ago, when I was at some pains to test the value of fenugreek on
two lots of six bullocks, the fenugreek appeared to do good ; but the weigli-bridge
did not justify this appearance, which probably rested on a keener appetite and
greater consumption of straw-chafiF. — P. H. F.

140 Stocking Land.

tion is sometimes disposed of. On the one hand we have men of
high authority pronouncing it as a dictum, if not an axiom, that
only general education can be given by teachers in public insti-
tutions ; but that special education (except in the case of the
learned professions) must be " picked up " in actual life. On
the other hand the requirements of this actual life are deemed so
urgent, that others are disposed to force youths into it before they
can possibly have obtained anything like a complete general edu-
cation. If a plan can be suggested whereby the preparation for
business could be combined for a year or two with the general
education, surely the advocates of the latter ought to encourage
it. But it is said that special education, except in contact with
actual business, is often found to be delusive and mischievous.
Why not then maintain or even enforce that contact ? By actual
business is meant profit and loss in hondjide transactions. There
is, at least, as much to be learnt by losing as by winning, and it is
commonly said that a man must burn his fingers who would learn
to handle the difliculties of life successfully. It is not necessary,
therefore, that a farm or a workshop should pay in order to be
instructive, but it is necessary that profit should be aimed it, and
the causes of failure be honestlv ascertained and publicly avowed.
If live stock are at present the principal source of profit and loss
to the farmer, it is clear that a thorough knowledge of its value is
a most important part of his training. This value varies, 1st,
Avith the age, development, and quality of the animal ; 2nd, with
the state of the market. It is one thing to know what the current
price of meat or wool is, and this is in our days easily ascertained
without any actual intercourse with a market ; it is another
thing to know what, according to this market price, is the value
at any time of several animals, singly or in lots.

That this knowledge may be better learned upon a farm
stocked and conducted for the purpose of giving this instruction,
than picked up in actual life even under favourable circum-
stances, seems to me, at least, a reasonable anticipation, till it
shall have been disproved by experience. I am, therefore,
taking into considerati(m how this element of instruction may
best be introduced into our proposed county college, which will
aim at teaching so much of farming as a youth just over sixteen
years of age may learn without giving up his general studies.

There can, I think, be no greater difficulty about exercising
a class of young men in estimating the weight of animals, than
in training a squad of riflemen to judge distances. If the pur-
chase of lean stock and the public sale of fat stock be part of the
system pursued, it will not be hard further to exercise the judg-
ment as to the capabilities of animals, and these two considera-
tions — weight and capabilities — determine value. Apart from

Annual Report. 141

the superior judgment of the experienced instructor, estimates of
value would be tested by actual purchases and sales, and would
be verified to a considerable extent by the weighbridge, and the
measuring-tape, when placed in skilful hands.

Appropriate prizes may be given so as to excite the spirit of
emulation as far as is desirable, or even forms of sweepstakes
might be devised which would give to each student a keener
interest in a particular animal, and bring him directly into
contact with profit or loss dependant on judgment in stock.
Thus in one branch of his practical education, which is of
great and growing importance, the agricultural student while
still at college might obtain valuable training, and one of the
objections of practical men to general education, as being a
disqualification for special business, might be lessened. At least
that contempt for trade, or shame of shop, which 1 think the
public-school education in England has too much promoted,
might be broken through if a knowledge of some of the arts and
sciences necessary to an honest livelihood were combined with
those that are essential to an honourable life.

I am yours truly,

J. L. Breketon.

Mectory, West BucMand, South Molton,
Devon.

X. — Peofessor Voelcker's Annual Report.

During the past season I had the honour of delivering before
the members of the Royal Agricultural Society two lectures : —

1. On atmospheric food of plants.

2. On the chemical composition and properties of water.

In consequence of the interest which was thus excited, I have
since received a larger number of specimens of water for analysis
than at any previous time.

Amongst the samples examined by me several were found to
be quite unfit for drinking.

I find that the drinking-water supplied in towns is generally much
better than that used in the country, a difference which is attri-
butable to the prevalence of surface wells, and to defective drainage.

Water which smells in the least degree disagreeably, or which
holds in suspension light floculant matter, or does not become
perfectly bright on standing for 6 hours, or which is distinctly
yellow in appearance, should at any rate be regarded with sus-
picion, and should be carefully examined before it is employed
for domestic use.

1 42 Annual Eeport.

The pollution of our rivers by sewage not only entails a waste
of fertilizing matter, but likewise disseminates the germs of
disease along their banks.

Whether the sewage of towns can be profitably applied to the
land or not, is a question to which a general answer cannot be
given ; for much depends on local circumstances, such as the posi-
tion and chemical character of the land, &c. It is clear, however,
to my own mind that the sewage of towns must not be allowed to
find its Avay into our rivers, and that the soil is its natural and
most effectual deodorizer.

The streams in the neighbourhood of lead and copper mines
often contain in suspension fine particles of ores, and by their over-
flow cause serious mischief to the land by the deposit of metali-
ferous mud. An instance of great injury caused to horses and
cattle by the sediment of a stream in a mining district was brought
under my notice some time ago. On examining this sediment
I found in it not only lead, but likewise a considerable quantity
of copper and arsenic.

Whilst speaking of accidental poisoning, I may say that two
cases of lambs poisoned by wheat steeped in arscnious acid were
the subject of examination in the past season.

A good many suspected poisoning cases were referred to me,
but with the exception just named, in no instance could poison
be detected.

It is worthy of notice that most of my correspondents attributed
the cause of the loss of their live stock to the linseed and cotton
cake which they used. In the last twelve months a considerable
number of feeding-cakes have been sent me by members of the
Society, and my attention has been especially called to an un-
usually large mortality in lambs, in certain districts. Many cakes
were found to be largely adulterated with cheap refuse, such as
rice-dust, pollard, oat-dust, and other mill-refuse. But w^hilst it
is quite possible that in some cases the suspected cakes may
have really done mischief, I am bound to say that in most cases
the mortality alluded to could not be referred to the bad condition
or poisonous character of the cake upon which the lambs were
fed.

At the same time, the experience of the past year has greatly
strengthened the opinion which I expressed some time ago,
namely, that stale and mould?/ cakes frequently act as rank
poisons, even w^hen given to stock in moderate quantities.

On the subject of the effects of mould or fungi in cakes, corn,
and feeding materials generally, we have as yet but very little
precise information. As this is a subject admitting of positive
experimental proof, I venture to recommend it to the considera-
tion of the Veterinary Committee.

Annual Report. 143

It is very desirable to ascertain more definitely the physiolo-
gical effect of mouldy feeding substances upon the health of
animals, and the precise chemical character of the feeding ma-
terials which have had a prejudicial effect on sheep, horses, and
cattle, by experiments specially devised by your Veterinary and
Chemical Committees, with this object.

At the request of the Chemical Committee, I have carried out
the following field-experiments : —

a. On the Efficacy of Salt as a Fertilizer.

A series of experiments with salt upon mangolds was tried in
Oxfordshire. The same series was repeated in Bedfordshire.

The unusually dry summer, I regret tosay, completely spoiled
the experiments in both instances.

The effects of salt were also tried upon oats, barley, and clover-
seeds, but without any marked results.

b. Manuring Experiments upon Sicedes and Turnip.

A series of field-experiments upon swedes and turnips with a
variety of artificial manures, carried out on light land in Bed-
fordshire, was, I regret to say, completely spoiled^by the failure
of the root-crop.

c. Field Experiments on Clover-seeds.

The following manures were tried upon clover and seeds
during the past season : —

1. Nitrate of soda, applied at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre.

2. Sulphate of ammonia „ „

3. Mineral superphosphate „ „

4. Common salt „ „

5. No manure „ ,,

6. Muriate of potash „ „

7. Sulphate of potash „ „

8. Sulphate of lime „ 20 cwt. per acre,
g (Mineral superpliosphatc „ 41^^^ . ^^^^_

\ and nitrate of soda „ 4j ^

-.-. rMineral superphosphate „ 4\

\ and muriate of potash „ 4/ "

These were tried on two farms in Shropshire, also in Bed-
fordshire, and in Northumberland.

In the three first-mentioned localities the clover-crop was
scarcely worth making into hay, and the experiments conse-
quently were a complete failure.

The last-mentioned series, undertaken under my direction by
Mr. Jacob Wilson, of Woodharn Manor-house, Morpeth, were more
successful, I am happy to say. The results wlh be published in a
future separate paper in the Journal, but I may mention that super-

144 Annual Report.

phosphate of lime, in conformity with Mr. Lawes's experience,
decidedly favoured the development of the clover-plant, whilst
nitrate of soda and sulphate encouraged in a marked degree the
growth of the grasses in the mixed clover and grass-seeds. Sul-
phate of lime also showed a beneficial effect in this case, probably
on account of the deficiency of lime in the field in which the
experiment was tried.

Neither sulphate nor muriate of potash produced any great
effect upon seeds, but in conjunction with superphosphate, mu-
riate of potash gave a very considerable increase.

A different set of experiments were tried upon a clover-field
in Bedfordshire.

This field was in high condition, and the clover-plant upon it
was uniformly and unusually strong.

The manures which were used were : —

1. Nitrate of soda applied at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre.

2. „ 1 J cwt. per acre and 4 cwt. of sui)erphosphate.

3. Common salt, (^ cwt. per acre.

4. „ 3

5. No miuuire.
0.

The two unmanured portions of this clover-field produced the
large crop of 2 tons 10 cwt. 80 lbs. and 2 tons 11 cwt. and 8 lbs,
of clover-hav respectively.

3 cwt. of salt had no effect ; f! cwt. of salt slightly diminished
the produce ; and the nitrate of soda alone and the mixture of
nitrate of soda and superphosphate gave only a very inconsi-
derable increase in the produce.

It follows from these experiments that the land was in too
high a condition for experimental purposes, and that beyond a
certain maximum produce, determined by season, climate, and
the presence of an ample supply of all the elements of fertility
required for the perfection of the crop, we cannot increase it by
the administration of an additional quantity of manuring matter.

d. Experiments on Top-dressings upon Oats and Barley.

A number of experiments were made, under my directions, by
Mr. Pocock, of VVanston Manor, Micheldover, Hampshire. Their
results confirm mv belief in the beneficial effect of nitrate of
soda and superphosphate on the barley-crop grown on chalky
soils.

Probably Mr. Pocock will prepare a paper on the subject, to
be read on one of the weekly meetings of the Society.

For the forihcoming volume of the Journal I have in prepara-
tion papers on the following subjects ; —

Annual Report. 145

1. On the composition of mangolds grown with different quan-
tities of salt.

2. On some causes of sterility in soils.

3. Experiments on top-dressings for wheat.

4. On the variations in the composition of palm-nut kernel
meal and cake.

Supphj of Potash- Salts.

The discovery of a new and comparatively-speaking cheap
source of potash, at Strassfurt, in Saxony, induced me to order
a quantity of crude potash-salts from Germany, for experimental
purposes. These salts contain about 20 per cent, of sulphate
of potash, and are likely to prove of considerable service for
turnips and clover on light land.

The dry season unfortunately spoiled the experiments with
these potash-salts, which I instituted in several places during the
past season.

In consideration of the great practical importance and the
scientific interest connected with this discovery of an abundant
source of potash, I lately visited Strassfurt, and inspected its
extensive salt-mines in which the potash-salts occur.

The manufacture of potash began at Strassfurt about three
years ago, and brought about 14,000 workmen to the place.
At the time of my visit I found no less than fourteen potash-
works in operation at Strassfurt, amongst thein one belonging to
an English firm. In the adjoining county of Anhalt, which I
did not visit, I was told there are six or eight such manufactoi'ies.

Should potash be found to have a decidedly beneficial effect
upon some of our crops, which I think is likely to be the case
under particular circumstances, I have no doubt that these exten-
siv^e deposits will supply potash in a crude form in abundance
at a cheap rate.

Experiments on the effects of potash on light sandy soils,
usually deficient in that alkali, can alone decide whether or not
potash can be, economically used as a manuring agent.

The inquiries which I made in Germany respecting the ex-
perience of farmers who tried the crude potash-salts of Strassfurt
do not enable me to say positively that they had a decidedly
beneficial or contrary effect. The fact is that as yet our expe-
rience is far too scanty for deciding this question.

Night-Soil and Seioage of Foreign Toicns.

On the occasion of my recent visit to Germany I took an
opportunity of inquiring into the disposal of human excrements
on the Continent, and found that their utilization is attended with
pecuniary loss to the towns of Germany and Flanders. All

VOL. I. — S.S. L

14G Annual Report.

attempts to convert them profitably into marketable fertilizers have
proved abortive ; the townspeople at Frankfort, Dresden, Leip-
zig, Antwerp, Brussels^ and Berlin have to pay for the removal
of the contents of the cesspools ; and the question how to dispose
of these economically, without creating^ a nuisance, is as much
agitated in Germany as it is in England at the present time.

The Cattle-Melon.

The failure of the turnip-crop has brought into greater promi-
nence the cultivation of the cattle-melon. A specimen of this
new vegetable yielded on analysis the following results : —

Composition of Cattle-melon.

AVater 90-66

*Albuminons compounds (flesh-forming matters) .. 1'66

Su^ar, miicila?;© and digestible fibre 5-74

"Woody fibre (cellulose) 1'17

Mineral matters (ash) "TT

100-00
♦Containing nitrogen .. .. '265

It has been supposed that the cattle-melon is equal in nutri-
tive properties to mangolds, but this is a mistake, as will be seen
by comparing the composition of another specimen of cattle-
melon, analysed by me some time ago, with that of yellow globe
mangolds.

Composition of a specimen of Cattle-melon and of Yellow Globe Mangold-

wurzel.

1. General Composition.

Cattle-melon. ™wGlobe

Water 92-030 88-450

Organic matters 7-350 10-524

Mineral matters (ash) -620 1-026

100-000 100-000

2. Detailed Composition.

Water 92-030 88-450

^Soluble albuminous compounds -619 -887

flnsoluble albuminous compounds -156 "104

Sugar and mucilage 4-661 7'538

Woody fibre (cruile) 1-914 1-995

Soluble mineral matters -540 -952

Insoluble mineral matters '080 '074

100-000 100-000

♦Containing nitrogen '099 '142

fContaining nitrogen -025 -017

Total nitrogen -124 -159

Equal to albuminous compounds (flesh-\ _». ,„„,

tbrming matters) j '

Annual Report. 147

The proportion of water in the cattle-melon, as in other succu-
lent vegetable productions, is subject to considerable variations ; as
far as my experience goes, it is much larger than in mangolds,
approaching more nearly to the character of white turnips.

Analyses.

The number of analyses made for members of the Society
during the past season was a full average. Amongst the analyses
the following are of interest to the feeder of stock.

Composition of Pea-shells.

Moisture 13-68

Oil 1-09

*Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . . 7*12

'. Mucilage, starch and digestible fibre 21-65

Woody fibre (cellulose) .. .. 53-71

Mineral matters (ash) 2-75

100-00
*Containing nitrogen I'H

The nutritive value of pea-shells is not great ; still, it will be
seen, that they contain some starch, a little oil, and 7 per cent, of
flesh-forming matters, and as this is a cheap food, it may be given
to cattle in time of scarcity with advantage.

Composition of Locust-meal.

A sample of locust-meal, on analysis, gave the following

results : —

Moisture 12-61

Oil 1-08

Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) .. 5-87

Sugar 44-30 '

Tectin, mucilage and digestible fibre 26-13 |

"Woody fibre (cellulose) 7-14 ;

Mineral matters (ash) 2-87

100-00

Locust-beans, as will be seen, are very rich in sugar, and con-
sequently very sweet and fat-producing ; in the shape of meal
they may be added with great advantage to other less palatable
nutritious food, such as palm-nut kernel meal.

Biscuit-meal.

Under this name a meal is now sold by the Metropolitan
Farina Company, at the price of 9/. a ton.

L 2

148 Annual Report.

t

A sample of biscuit-meal analysed by me liad the following
composition :

Moisture 8-70

Oil 1-61

Albuminous compounds (flesli-forming matters) .. 10*12

Starch, dcctrinc and sugar 76'90

Cellulose (woody fibre) -58

Mineral matters (ash) 2-09

100-00
Jiice-meal.

Rice-meal varies much in composition, for the commercial
article sold under that name contains variable, and often large
proportions of the husk of rice, which possesses little or no nutri-
tive properties.

A sample of rice-dust lately analvsed by me had the following

composition : —

Moisture 8-83

Oil and fatty matters 9-50

*Albuminous comjounds (llcsh-forming matters) .. 12'75

Starch, mucilage and digestible fibre />0*fi9

AVoody libre (cellulose) 10-14

fMineral matters (ash) 8-09

100-00

*Contaiiiing nitrogen 2-0+

fCoutaiuiug silica 3- 17

Rice-dust contains a good deal of a nicely-tasting yellow oil,
which no doubt adds much to the fattening properties of rice-
meal ; but the price at which this meal is usually sold in the
market, in comparison with the more nutritious barley-meal, is
far too high.

Augustus Voelcker.

12, Hanover Square, London,
December, 18G-1.

XI. — On Cross-Breeding in Horses. By W. C. Spooner.

It is now nearly five years since I discussed the subject of
cross-breeding in the pages of this Journal, vol. xx., with
more particular reference to the breeding of sheep ; my paper
excited some little attention, and I had no reason to complain
of the criticism it received. In the mean time, I have seen
no cause to doubt the truth of the principles then advocated,
or the facts adduced in their support. I propose, therefore, at
the present time, to show the applicability of those principles to

Cross-Brccding in Horses. 149

tlie horse, more particularly the saddle-horse, and I hope to illus-
trate this branch of the subject with equally strong examples,
Among-st the points I sought to establish were the following : —
That the influence of the male or female parent is not capri-
cious ; but yet not always alike : in the majority of instances
the male parent governs the size and external shape of the
offspring (particularly in the back and hind-quarters), whilst the
female influences the constitution, the nervous system, and often
the head and fore-quarters— the case being, however, occasionally
reversed. That this combination, which may be more of a
mechanical than a chemical union, by no means implies such
an equal division of influence, as the mingling of two fluids, in
which case the offspring would be unlike either parent, but a

juste milieu between the two, and there could be no handing
down of type from one generation to another. It is rather such
a fusion of two bodies into one that both defects and high quali-
fications are passed on from parent to offspring with a sort of
regular irregularity, resembling the waves of the sea — each parent
having the remarkable power of propagating ancestral pecu-
liarities, though latent in itself. Thus it is that strong cha-
racteristics are handed from one generation to another ; so that
if we seek by careful selection to remove a defect or propagate
a good qualit}', we may calculate that a large number, perhaps
the majority of the offspring, will meet our wishes, and by weed-
ing out the remainder and pursuing this course for several gene-
rations we may accomplish our design. This view will further
explain how it is that defects not seen in the first cross, being
kept down as it were by the superior influence of the improving
parent, re-appear in the next generation, and serve to deter timid
breeders from continuing the experiment, or arm the opponents
of crossing with strong but fallacious arguments against going
beyond the first cross.

I pointed out that, owing to the superior influence of the

. male parent, the effect of the first cross in sheep was very con-
siderable, bringing greater size, often longer wool, earlier matu-
rity, and a propensity to fatten ; or, in other cases, superior
quality of mutton. Many persons who go thus far are deterred
from going any farther by the very numerous failures which
result from pairing together animals of the first cross, and con-
sider that pure breeds only should be perpetuated ; I adduced,
however, various examples to show that crossing might be carried
much farther, even to the extent of establishing altogether a new
breed, possessing qualifications which, although derived from
them, yet neither of the parent breeds alone exhibited. I
instanced the cases of the Improved Hampshire, the New Oxford-
shire, and the Shropshire, and more particularly the flocks of

150 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

Mr. Humphreys, as affording- successful illustrations of the
practice.

Special reference was made to Mr. Humphreys, Avho, starting
with two of Mr. Jonas Webb's best prize Southdown rams, kept
steadily to sires of his own stock, occasionally purchasing fresh
Hampshire ewes, until in the course of 20 years he had esta-
blished a first-rate breed, all of which were descended on one
side from Mr. Jonas Webb's Southdowns. This example, as
well as that of Mr. Rawlence of Wilton, who now scarcely ranks
second to Mr. Humphreys, seems to show that the use of males
and females possessing a similar amount of breeding is much
more to be depended on than the system pursued by others who
cross with- the Sussex when their sheep are getting too strong or
coarse, and with the old Hampshire when they are getting too
small.

I now further propose to inquire whether this system, which
is so successful with sheep, is one altogether to be condemned
with horses ; always assuming that cross-breeding, to be suc-
cessful, must be undertaken with a distinct and defined object,
and assigning the highest praise and the first rank to those who
maintain intact the purity of our best established breeds.

An opinion is very commonly entertained that there are only
two pure breeds of horses in this country (ponies excepted),
viz., the thorough-bred and the heavy cart-horse, — all the rest
being but modifications of these races in various degrees. It is,
however, probable, that long before either of these extremes
were known among us there existed a native breed of a very
useful kind, pure examples of which are now scarcely to be met
with. The ^;ocA-horse with his drooping hind-quarters, good
shoulders, strong fore-legs, and sure action, existed in Eng-
land for centuries before the Barb and the Arab were imported
for the chase or the race-course by the Stuarts, or the intro-
duction of carriages had led to the use of Flanders mares
brought from the neighbouring continent ; these heavy horses,
with their high action, slow but sure and staunch, being natu-
rally much prized for helping the ponderous coach out of
the deep ruts of the high roads or along the miry lanes. The
heaviest of the race were greatly in demand not only for tilling
the strong lands but for drawing the cumbrous road-waggon
before even the six-mile-an-hour luggage-van was introduced as
a novelty and an innovation. I have before me one of Morland's
striking sketches which reminds me forcibly of my boyish days,
when the slow but sure approach of one of these ponderous
vehicles with its eight or twelve ton load, heralded perhaps by a
cloud of dust ever stirred up by the heavy feet of the ten or
twelve massive animals that moved it onward at the rate of some

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 151

two miles an hour, never failed to command attention. It was a
sight to behold these leviathans settle into their work after a
short respite in the midst of a steep hill ; the burly waggoner,
too heavy to Avalk, and scorning to ride in his waggon, was
mounted on one of those strong sure-footed ponies, usually white
or pie-bald, which have long since disappeared. A crack from
his long whip would send in to the collar with a 20-horse
power the ten hairy-legged but powerful brutes whose broad
backs were rendered still broader in appearance by the absence
of tails, for each horse was docked nlose to the stump, under the
absurd idea that their strength would thereby be increased.

It is difficult to imagine that this waggon, which seemed to the
people of the day to be one of the institutions of the country, was
itself formerly looked on as a newfangled novelty, which super-
seded the once universal, now well-nigh forgotten pack-horse.

There are but few specimens remaining of the pure pack-horse
breed which has been quite neglected and overlooked by agri-
cultural societies ; and, consequently, whilst the mares have for a
while proved valuable for breeding half-bred hunters with the
thorough-bred horse, the males have been gelded and used up.
This original or ancient race has no doubt been modified con-
siderably in size, according to the fertility of the soil on which
it might be raised ; being sometimes developed into the strong
upstanding harness-horse, and at others dwindling down to the
plain but useful galloway, as seen in many remote districts, and
particularly in the little horses used in the Irish cars. The Welsh
pony and the Clydesdale cart-horse, the latter enlarged by rich
pasturage and perhaps a cross, probably represent the opposite
extremes of this same breed.

In less civilised ages the most useful horse was that which
could most readily be adapted to all purposes ; and there is no
good reason why, even in modern days, the more ancient breed,
equally pure and more serviceable than the blood-horse or dray-
horse, should be altogether neglected, not only by our sporting
men, but by the patrons of our agricultural societies ; particularly
since magnificent hunters have been the result of the cross
between the thorough-bred horse and the old pack-horse mare.
It will be useful to point out the peculiarities which distinguish
the two breeds, with a few explanatory remarks on the component
parts of the animal which by their varying proportions constitute
those peculiarities.

The skeleton is formed of bone, which owes its solidity to the
fact that it is composed of one- half or upwards of earthy matter,
so deposited in cartilaginous cells as to render the bones strong
and resisting, and adapted not only to support the weight of the
animal, and to protect from injury the vital organs, but to serve

152 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

as a framework for the attachment of muscles, sinews, and liga-
ments. The bones of the limbs are for the most part cylindrical,
and motion is effected by means of joints at the extremities of
the bones, which are secured by powerful non-elastic ligaments.
The bones are much smaller in the thorough-bred than in the
cart and intermediate breeds, though generally more compact,
and the joints also are by no means so wide, but admit of more
longitudinal moti(m. With this diminished size there is, of
course, less surface to sustain the weight of the body.

The sinews resemble the ligaments in appearance, and like
them are non-elastic ; they are attached to the bones, and serv'e to
communicate motion to them from the muscles to which they are
joined or from which they appear to spring. Both ligaments
and sinews are smaller in the thorough-bred than in other horses.
The muscles and the flesh are the same, and are the seat of the
motive power, motion being produced by the contraction of the
fibres of which the muscles are composed. The strength is the
result both of the size and the number of fibres, whilst the
extent of motion depends on the length of the muscles and their
fibres. Of course the length of the bones corresponds to that of
the muscles, and althougli the joints 'in the thorough-bred have
less surface, they admit of more motion.

The pack-horse mav be thus described: — The prevailing
colours of the breed were bay and brown, which, with the usual
accompaniments of black legs, denoted a good and hardy consti-
tution, vet other colours, such as greys and blacks, were to be found
occasionally. Among the chief peculiarities were the good and
flat fore-leg with its well developed back sinew or flexor tendon,
the good and sound foot, and capital shoulders and forehand.
The neck muscular, but not thick and heavy, was fairly arched,
and the head, of moderate size, was well set on. This form was
accompanied, as we might expect, with good and safe action in
the walk and trot ; the horse rarely stumbled, and only fell from
overwork and exhaustion. Whilst the heavier and coarser speci-
men of this breed was capable of carrying his five-hundredweight
load throughout a long journey, the lighter and more active was
used as the ordinary saddle-horse or even as the hunter of the
day. Many of these animals were extraordinary Irotters, and, as
good trotters are generallv good walkers likewise, the quality was
greatly prized and encouraged ; and thus a race of trotters was
bred which, no doubt, were the ancestors of the celebrated Ame-
rican trotting-horses, such as the " Tom Thumbs " of later days.
Although these horses were deep in the chest and ribs, the hind-
quarters were comparatively inferior, the hips were often ragged,
the tail set on low, and sometimes the hocks were rather too
straight. The celebrated trotting-horses of Norfolk were evidently

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 153

not true pack-horses, although perhaps allied to them : they had,
no doubt, a touch of Spanish blood and possibly of the Thorough-
bred.

Let us now, as a contrast, glance at the peculiarities of the
thorough-bred horse. Racing, no doubt, existed in this country
long before, but received a new impetus from the introduction of
the Barb, the Arabian, and the Turk. The sires which were at
first imported, quickly established the great superiority of the
Eastern blood as regards speed, and when mares followed at a
later date in smaller numbers, they no doubt still further added
to the speed of the English racehorse.

The modern blood-horse is of much greater average size
than the Arab or the Barb either of the present or the past ;
and a doubt exists whether this is entirely due to selection and
nurture, or in part to the early crossing with the native mare ;
in any case, it cannot be denied that every thorough-bred horse
in the kingdom, from the highest to the lowest, is to the extent
of more than nineteen-twentieths descended from the Eastern
horse. This foreign influence was not, however, derived from
one strain only, for the pedigree of ' Eclipse ' himself shows
that besides his descent from the Darby Arabian and Godolphin
Barb, he had five or six crosses of the Turk ; and we have a
strong conviction that the improved native horse, made up of the
ancient British, the Spanish, and the Barb, is entitled to some share
in the honours of his parentage. Be this as it may, the present
English thorough-bred horse has proved himself faster than any
of the breeds from which he is sprung; and although many
doubts have been cast of late on his powers of endurance in com-
parison with the smaller horse of some fifty years ago, and the
practice of training and racing has been severely criticised, yet
there is good reason to suppose that our first-class winnei's are as
stout as most of those which have preceded them.

The thorough-bred English horse, in common with the Arabian,
possesses no doubt more muscular vigour, as well as nervous
energy, than any other kind of horse.* In addition to this he

* From time to time it has been suggested, •with the view of improving our
breed of thoi'ough-bred horses, and particularly their staying qualities, to resort
again to the original or parent breeds ; but not to mention the ill-success of
such attempts when made, it must be evident that the tendency of this cross
"would be to diminish the size and to shorten the stride, and probably to render
the action too high; we can therefore scarcely expect breeders for the turf to
adopt the advice. At the same time it must be acknowledged that the Arab has
been more successful with half-bred and under-bred mares than the third-class
cast-off racer, inasmuch as with undeniable bottom there has been a hardier con-
stitution, better fore-legs, and higher action from this cross. Where the dam has
been of sufficient bone and size, many good hunters and handsome harness-horses
have been so bred, and still more frequently capital ponies and galloways; indeed,
this is one of the best modes of improving the breed of ponies. Arabs have, in

154 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

has a deep chest capable of admitting' the large amount of air
which the demands of the system require under severe exertion.
By natural conformation and by artificial training all superfluous
weight is removed, and thus he is capable of covering more
ground in his stride, and of repeating these strides more fre-
quently than any other horse, as well as of continuing his extreme
efforts for a longer period without tiring. The heart and the
brain of such a horse are comparatively larger than in other breeds,
the bones, though smaller, are more compact, the skin of a thinner
and finer texture, and the blood-vessels more developed. These
advantages, however, are not without certain diawbacks. The
delicacy of the skin causes the animal to be extremely susceptible
of cold, he is consequently less hardy and requires more food to
keep up the animal tcm])eraturc, so that it is difficult to keep
flesh on a thorough-bred horse unless he is kept warm ; moreover,
the carcass being smaller, the stomach and intestines are not so
large, and consequently the food must be more concentrated and
nutritious to keep up this supply of warmth.

The difference as respects hardiness is strikingly shown between
the foal of the cart-mare and the thorough-bred. Whilst the
former is strong, sturdy, and fleshy, the latter is comparatively
puny, thin, and susceptible of the least cold ; the former, by
means of the dam's milk, can be kept in first-rate order, whilst
the latter requires artificial assistance as soon as it can be ren-
dered. The fact is that the digestive apparatus is more powerful
in the one than in the other — it can assimilate more nutriment
from nutritious food, and subsist on rough diet on which the
other would starve. This it is which renders it so expensive to
rear the blood-colt, and this distinction prevails throughout life,
and extends in a lesser degree to the half-bred, as compared with
the cart-horse. The thorough-bred has yet other faults ; as a
rule, he is slighter and weaker in the fore-legs, he goes closer
to the ground, is often a bad walker, and an indifferent trotter,
and is more liable to stumble and fall than the coarse-bred horse.
How can it he otherwise ? He is bred to win a race, from parents
who have been winners ; the elevated and rounded action that
makes a good hack or charger, would shorten his stride and
impair his chances ; although if he has good^egs^and sufficient
size and substance, the very fact of his being too slow for racing
ought to be rather a recommendation as a hunting-stallion than
otherwise, yet Avho would give him credit for stoutness if he had
never been fortunate enough to win a race ; or what chance would
he have for a prize at our agricultural shows when judged by

proportion to their size and -weight, larger bone and sinew than the majority of
our thorough-breds, and I have often observed their beneficial inilueuce in the
second and third generation both with hunters and other horses.

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 155

those who can recognise at a glance a Derby favourite, or the
winner of the St. Leger ?

The term stoutness in racing phraseology means endurance
connected with speed ; it has nothing to do with size and weight,
as a tyro might suppose : a great horse is often speedy but a
craven at heart, whilst most of the stoutest race-horses of the last
century were little more than galloways in size, and such too are
the untiring Arabs of the Desert. No judge, therefore, can tell
a stout horse by his appearance — it is necessary to know his
performances before this can be determined ; for, however perfect
the symmetry and powerful the frame, if he is only good for a
mile he is not stout.

The improvement effected in the size and probably in the
speed of the thorough-bred horse is no doubt very great, and
every year produces some wonderful examples of first-class
winners ; yet I will venture to say that nowhere else through-
out Nature where the same care and vigilance is bestowed on
the rearing of animals, are the blanks so many and the prizes
so few. To justify this perhaps startling assertion, let us
endeavour to trace the career of the, say, fifteen hundred or
more thorough-bred foals which are annually dropped. These
foals are reared from mares of undeniable pedigree, and for the
most part of good size, very many among them being winners.
The majority are begotten by first-class horses, who have either
been great winners themselves or have beat great winners before
they have themselves broken down, or, better still, have proved
themselves the sires of great winners as well as winners them-
selves. Both care and expense are lavishly bestowed on the
fifty or sixty sires, the two thousand brood-mares, and also on
the foals themselves as soon as they are dropped. The dam's
milk is sustained with the most nutritious food, and the foal
is fed with the best as soon as it can masticate. It is an
error to suppose that either the mare or the foal is pampered
or enervated by undue care ; the well-kept paddock affords every
facility for taking exercise, and those who have witnessed the
sprightly and incessant gambols of the young animal will
acknowledge that the muscles and sinews of the thorough-bred
foal are called into play much more than those of the cart-horse.
Yet, with all this care, what becomes of these costly toys ? The
greater number go into training at two years old or earlier, no
small percentage having previously disappeared from disease
or accident, and very many succumb to the numerous mala-
dies and mishaps that occur in the training-stable. After this
ordeal the trials begin ; and then some are condemned as too
slow and others as too small, some are mercifully shot out of
the way, others submitted to the auctioneer's hammer, and many

156 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

a colt that has cost 200/. to rear is sold for less than 10/., and
perhaps is dear at the price. The majority thus sold are colts
and fillies that have never raced, many have given way in the
joints or sinews, whilst some are rejected for their shortcomings
in the actual race as two-year-olds, although many a horse which
was unsuccessful at that age has proved a prize-winner after-
wards. It is difficult to say how many of those foaled actually
make their appearance on the race-course, but the difference in
numbers between the entries and the starters for the Derby will
afford some slight criterion. At all events, a little reflection will
satisfy us that the number of first-class, or even second-class,
horses annually brought to maturity is very small, and justify
our assertion that the blanks far outnumber the prizes.

How can we explain such a falling off, that the offspring pro-
bably to the extent of 70 per cent., should prove inferior to both
the sire and dam ? The answer may be found in the fact that
although our first-class race-horses are large and powerful
animals, yet they are descended from ancestors considerably
smaller than themselves, and Nature makes a constant effort to
return to the original type. But for this natural law there is no
telling what size our thorough-bred horses might reach, for the
constant effort of the breeder is to raise large colts, and it is
almost an axiom with many men that although a good little horse
is all very well, a good big horse is a great deal better. In fact,
the little horses, which are sometimes greater winners, are rather
low than small, and usually have considerable length of muscle
as well as depth of chest and substance, to compensate for their
want of height. When, therefore, there are such constant efforts
to outstep Nature, we cannot wonder that failure should be so
frequent a result.

There is a striking contrast between Derby horses and their
numerous relations who figure at country races, and when
the short racing-career of these large colts is over and they
are devoted to the stud it is astonishing how large they become
and how much they girth.* They look the very incarna-

* Although as a rule half-bred and threeparts-bred horses have more bone, and

are larger iu the girth than thorough-breils, yet the latter increase surprisingly
in girth when thrown out of training and devoted to the stud. My friend
Mr. Barrow, Veterinary Surgeon, of Newmarket, has kindly furnished me with
the measurements of a number of lirst-class stud-horses now under his care at
Newmarket. Amongst others "Longbow," " Toxopholite," Thunderbolt," and
"Muscovite," all of whom were upwards of 16 hands, and exceeded 6 feet
in girth, and measured ou the average 8 inches round between the knee and
the fetlock. The chest of the thorough-bred is always comparatively deep and
capacious, Mr. Barrow considers that the capacitj- of the chest increases after
serving mares and from wearing no rollers, or anything to interfere with the
proper expansion of the chest. It must be borne in mind that the horses here
mentioned are peers of their order.

Cross-Bi'ceding in Horses. 157

tion of vigour and of strength, and it is probably their look
that induces so many breeders to think that from such a sire
any amount of substance can be secured which can reasonably
be expected in the weight-carrying hunter. They forget, how-
ever, how large a percentage of their progeny are but " weeds,"
even when these sires are put to picked thorough-bred mares ; and
how very rarely the services of a horse of this stamp can be
secured for half-bred mares. The great bulk of travelling
thorough-bred stallions must necessarily be third-class horses,
long in the carcass, long in the legs, weak in the sinews, unfit
for any other purpose than the stud ; and such are the horses
that assist in deteriorating our breed of saddle-horses, and render
horse-bi'eeding so frequently unprofitable.

Let it not, however, be supposed that I undervalue the im-
portance of " blood " in the hunter, the hack, and the harness-
horse ; I only dispute the doctrine that we should rely mainly
or solely on the sire for its introduction, and then only for the
first cross. It is a well-established fact, that the Eastern blood
amalgamates with the native breeds of the country extremely
well ; it can be traced in the form, and still more in the courage
and endurance, even in the third and fourth generation.

I must now recall attention to the general principles of cross-
breeding, viz., that while the male governs the size (not mere
height), the vital functions and the nervous system are influenced
most by the female. If there be any truth in this doctrine, it
must be as essential to attend to the pedigree of the mares as to
that of the sire. But here all is left to chance ; and whether
she is taken from the plough-tail, the van, or the omnibus, no
matter, so long as the sire is thorough-bred. Let us consider how
the system works on some of our best mares. A farmer has a
valuable mare that has been tested by many an arduous run.
She is by a thorough- bred horse out of a half-bred mare, and,
valuable as she is, she is a shade too light, or, at any rate, would
be Avorth more money if she were equal to a little inore weight.
He is induced to put her to a thorough-bred horse, and the
jnogeny is, of coui'se, seven-eighths thorough-bred, but, according
to my experience, mostly an unprofitable weed. We might
go a step further back, to the stronger half-bred mare, and trace
the process of deterioration farther ; but the final issue is the
same — the propagation of a race of weeds. This is the real
root of the evil which is affecting our breeds of horses, — an
evil not to be remedied by the abolition of two or three year old
races, or by the substitution of longer distances, or by any of the
many suggestions with which, when political intelligence flags,
our daily papers teem. Races for two-year-olds may be objec-
tionable or otherwise, and eight-mile gallops may be excellent or

158 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

cruel; but, so long as racing is supported by the public as a
pastime, the former will not be abolished nor the latter restored.*

Do away with the excitement of the struggle, and by greatly
lengthening the race render its finish the slowest part of the
contest, and people will be contented to read the result in the
newspapers at home. Let us suppose that the racing of two-
year-olds was altogether abolished, and that the Derby was con-
tended for by four-year-olds, what would be the result? The
expense of keeping racehorses would be enormously increased,
perhaps to the extent of 100,000/. per annum. And after all,
even if these innovations could be introduced, they would alto-
gether fail in their professed object — that of improving the
stoutness of the thorough-bred horse.t

We frequentlv hear of horses that are very speedy for a mile, but
fail altogether in a longer race. Now, on what does this want
of stamina or stoutness depend? and, secondly, can it be dis-
covered or ascertained by the external conformation of the
animal ? The speed of the horse depends on the length of the
stride, and the frequency or rapidity with which these strides
can be repeated, and in proportion to these efforts is the demand
made on the organs of respiration and circulation and on the
nervous system. Excessive speed is, therefore, in itself one cause
of its short duration, inasmuch as it exhausts the vital powers.
In many cases the locomotive and vital powers may not be well
balanced : the former may be those of a first-class, and the latter
those of a second-class animal. To a certain extent this want of
bottom can be ascertained by the conformation, but to a certain
extent only. If the horse is very leggy, light in the carcass, and
narrow or deficient in depth of chest, the probability is that he
is speedy, but not enduring. Sometimes, however,^ an animal
shows none of these faults of form, and yet, though speedy for a

* The system of racing at two years old, -whilst it is always trying and often
fatal to the fore-legs and joints of the young animals, does not appear to be
injurious to the constitution ; for we have numerous instances of famous stud-
horses living to a good age, although they have raced thus early. That stout and
successful sire the " British Yeoman," tlie winner of the first prize at the Koyal
Agricultural Society's show at Chelmsford in 1856, fourteen years previously had
-won four large stakes as a two-year-old, and the following year ran fourth for
the Derby.

t If some of our stoutest thorough-breds have been discarded in consequence of
their not being speedy enough to win short races, what has become of these
horses, -whose services would have been so valuable for half-bred mares ? I
rather believe that speed and stoutness are mostly combined in great winners, as
in " Eclipse " and " King Herod " of old, and, at the present day, in " Stockwell "
and " Blair Athol," the latter of whom unquestionably won his great races by
his stoutness, for he was probably equalled in speed for half the race by several of
his competitors. Surely the St. Leger, and other still longer races, must in nine
years out of ten be -won by stout horses, and as such horses are always used for
the stud afterwards, they must have handed down to their posterity their
stoutness as well as their speed.

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 159

mile, is unable to " stay." The cause is here, no doubt, beyond
our ken ; though it is, no doubt, due to deficiencies in the vital
and nervous systems, and especially to the latter. To discover
its existence, we presume, is the object of the advisers of four
and eight mile races.

In the absence of proof, we much question whether the first-
class racehorses of the present are inferior in endurance to those
of former days. Why should they be so ? They are descended
from the best mares and the best horses, which have no doubt
handed down with their speed that endurance and strength of
constitution which contributes so much to make a winner. Want
of endurance is not the defect of this race ; put a feather-weight
on the back of a weed, and in a light country he will probably
beat the most valuable half-bred hunter, even in a long run ;
and yet with all this he is nearly valueless.

Next to the very first-class racehorses — the twenty prizes
amongst a thousand blanks — there is no kind of horse of which
this country has such reason to be proud as the half-bred, three-
parts, and seven-eighths bred hunters, the highest combination
in nature of strength and speed. Deriving speed and courage
from their Eastern progenitors, bone and substance from their
northern ancestors, and action in all their paces from the blending
of the two races, they are nearly perfect and decidedly most
generally useful.

When a breed of sheep or of bullocks has reached this point,
we seek to perpetuate their excellences by consorting parents who
on both sides possess them, avoiding, of course, too great con-
sanguinity. We do not resort, as a rule, again and again to the
original breeds from whence the improvement has been built up.
Why, then, should horses be an exception to this rule ? Why,
although the mares of this stamp are considered well adapted for
breeding, are the males condemned to be castrated, as unfit for
that purpose ? By such practice we not only lose the services
of the males in transmitting their good qualities, but deprive
one-half the mares of the opportunity of breeding animals as
strong and valuable as themselves. The practice is, no doubt,
in many respects a matter of convenience ; for weight-carrying
hunters are more tractable, and always, as geldings, command
good prices ; whilst it is hard to compete with the constant
supply of ready-made stallions — good, bad, and indifferent — from
racing stables, so long as their friends and owners can persuade
breeders of horses and agricultural authorities that the goodness
of the fore-legs is of little account, or that a bad thorough-bred
stallion is better than a good half-bred.

Referring again to the general principles which have been
laid down respecting the influence of either parent on the off"-

]60 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

spring, and considering that the temper, nervous system, vital
powers, and constitution, usually follow the dam, if the question
be put, " Given a certain amount of breeding, which side
would you prefer it to come from ? " we unhesitatingly say, if
it cannot be had from both sides, by all means let us have
it from that of the dam, that her courage, nervous system, and
vital powers may be, if possible, joined with the great bone and
sinew of the coarser sire. If this system were more frequently
pursued, we might breed weight-carrying horses from well-bred
though rather light mares, and sometimes even from the best of
the three and four year old mares cast out of the racing stable as
not being good enough. By such means our cavalry would be
far better mounted than at present, and we might, without
difficulty, retain just as much breed as is requisite and desirable.*
1 do not, however, recommend such violent crosses as that of
the cart-stallion with the thorough-bred mare, though not un-
frequently successful ; or the reverse case, which, with a few
noted exceptions, produces more failures.

As examples are always more telling than precepts, I propose
to adduce a few instances of successful breeding with half-bred
horses and well-ljred marcs.

To begin with my own experience. I rode a mare for some
twelve years without her making a mistake ; she was good in all
her paces, a fair hunter, an excellent jumper, and a capital hack.
She was bred by my father out of a threeparts-bred mare (a
good hunter) by a voung half-bred horse, pedigree unknown or
forgotten. Her dam afterwards bred three other colts by
thorough-bred sires, none of which proved of any value. They
could not carry weight, and none of them paid the expense of
breeding.

2. A rather heavy but active and useful cart-mare, belonging
to the same owner, bred two colts by thorough-ljred horses, neither
of which repaid expenses : they had the bodies of the dam and
the legs of their sires.

3. One of my friends had, some years since, a splendid trotting
mare that he justly regarded as a pearl of great price, for she had

* An inspection of our cavalry regiments will strikingly illustrate the evils
of the present system. I had an opportunity a twelvemonth since of looking
over a rather large number of cast cavalry-horses offered for sale by auction in
a garrison town, and found that nineteen out of twenty were extremely faulty.
In most, although the carcasses were sufficient, the legs were totally unfit to carry
the weight a cavalry horse is called upon to sustain. Crooked legs, weak
sinews, deficient bone, small joints, sickle hocks, the evident result of the union
of the two bodies of a thorough-bred horse and a coarse or cart mare, was
almost the universal rule; and they presented a strong contrast to the animals
that in my experience used to be cast some thirty years ago when half-bred stallions
were far more numerous than at present, and horses were bred from parents pos-
sessing on both sides the qualificatious sought to be perpetuated.

Cross-Breeding in Horses. 161

substance, showed plenty of breed, and was good in all her other
paces as well as the trot. After some years she was devoted to
the stud, and bred five foals, the first by a good half-bred horse
and the others by different thorough-bred horses. Her first foal
showed much more substance than any of the others, made a good
price, and is a valuable animal at the present day. Not one of
the others repaid expenses ; one proved a clever animal for a
light weight, but none possessed sufficient substance to be any-
thing like as valuable as the mare,

4. Another of my acquaintance some years since had a small
but very neat mare almost thorough-bred. He put her to a large
Yorkshire trotting stallion, and sold the produce at three years
old for sixty pounds ; when afterwards he put her to thorough-
bred stallions the stock were all deficient in substance, and con-
sequently unprofitable.

5. A farming friend had a capital fast mare, somewhat small,
and rather more than half-bred ; he put her to the last-named
stallion, about onefourth-bred : the produce, a mare now in my
possession, is very clever and somewhat larger than her dam.
Though too hot for the hounds, she is a capital hack as well as an
invaluable harness-mare. 1 consider this to be a successful example
of breeding from two parents, both well, but neither thorough-
bred. The dam of my mare was next put to a thorough-bred
horse, and produced a foal which had not nearly the value of the
first, gave out in the fore-legs, and was last seen in a London
cab. The sire referred to invariably got good animals when put
to well-bred mares, and useful ones when coarser mares were
employed.*

6. Another of my acquaintance some years since gave 50Z. for
a mare apparently threeparts-bred, which now in her old age is
such a model of symmetry that she attracted my special attention
when recently exhibited at a local show. She proved to be a
good hunter for an average weight, but before she could establish
her character, became lame, was devoted to the stud, and has
bred many colts. One of these, by a thorough-bred horse, became
a very clever and valuable hunter for a moderate weight ; the
other colts were mostly by a light and rather leggy but very active

* This horse was the son of " Performer," and the grandson of " Old Pretender,"
by " Fireaway " (celebrated trotting stallions of their day), out of a threeparts-bred
mare, having the strains of " Forester" and " Hambletonian." " Old Pretender",
trotted 15 miles "within the hour, with 15 stone on his back, whilst "Fireaway''
did 2 miles in 5 minutes. It is matter of very great regret tliat this breed of horses
has not been kept up in all its integrity, and that trotting-matches have been
allowed to sink into disreputable and low hands. Probably the cruelty that
was often connected with these time-matches, in which the same horse was backed
to go, say, from London to York, or to Exeter, in some short time, led to their
being discountenanced by the more respectable lovers of the horse.
VOL. I. — S. S. M

162 Cross- Breeding ill Horses.

Suffolk cart-horse, with good flat fore-legs and good feet. The
oldest of these, which promised to be a capital jumper and a
good weight-carrying hunter, was bought bv a farmer (a heavy
weight in the hunting-field) for 50/., and after exhibiting his
qualifications in a good run, was resold for lOOZ. on the same
day. The new owner, hearing afterwards that he was got by
a cart-horse, felt somewhat disgusted and parted with the horse
for 80/. to a dealer, who very soon disposed of him for double
this sum. The other two colts by the same horse are very pro-
mising. Although such a strong cross as this is not to be
recommended, it is worthy of note as an example of the powers
of the marc to transmit her qualities of speed and endurance
to her offspring, so as to render them good hunters.

7. A late master of hounds in a neighbouring county rode for
some years a threeparts-bred stallion, that besides being a first-
rate hunter was also used somewhat extensively as a stud-horse.
His stock was almost universally good and remunerative to the
breeders.

8. To these examples may l)e added some strong cases, kindly
communicated to me by Mr. H. Overman, of Weasenham, Nor-
folk :—

" H. K. S , Esq., of W , Norfolk, had two horses of

extraordinary good qualities as weight-carrying hunters ; they had
great pace and endurance, and were good performers. He rode
them in Norfolk, Northamptonshire, and Leicestershire, and
refused 700 guineas for the two. Their dam was a thorough-
bred mare that ran well in the Oaks, and their sire was a half-
bred cart-horse and hackney, with fine shoulders, good action,
strong loin, deep girth, and good thighs and legs."

9. JVIr, Overman adds : " 1 used the same horse to two mares
of my own, one a well-bred Irish mare. She threw a filly, which
I sold for 100 guineas, and has since made nearly 200. The
other mare was threequarter-bred, and she threw a colt which
turned out one of the best performers I ever saw. I sold him to

H. B , Esq., of Norwich, for his brother in Surrey for 130

guineas, and 400 guineas have since been refused for him.

10. " One of the best horses now in Lord H 's hunting-
stables was by a Norfolk hackney out of a half-bred hunting-
dam. We find in Norfolk if we put our Norfolk hackney to a
well-bred mare with size, she is sure to throw a good animal.

* Tom Moody,' the property of Mr. J , of Hopton, was not

thorough-bred, neither was Mr. Goold's ' Shackaback ;' and these
two horses are the sires of scores of good and valuable horses in
this county."

He adds : " The late Mr. Theobald, of Stockwell, in Surrey,
always said that it was much better to put the hackney horse to

Cross- Breeding in Horses. 163

the blood mare than to adopt the reverse plan ; the former course
being almost sure to bring a good animal. A blood mare, the
property of an uncle of mine, bred seven foals by hackney and
cross-bred horses, and all proved animals worth a good deal of
money."

My purpose in adducing these examples is to show that useful
horses almost always, and valuable ones very frequently, can be
bred as hack, hunters, and carriage-horses by using the half or
threeparts-bred stallion with well-bred mares, so as to secure a
sufficient amount of substance to carry weight. Not that Ave can
thus breed horses of greater value than by using the thorough-
bred stallion with suitable mares, for we can scarcely have too
much breed, provided we have sufficient substance ; but by
following the system recommended, if we do not succeed in
getting higher prices, we shall at any rate have fewer failures.

We have seen that with regard to sheep at least three dif-
ferent and valuable breeds have been inaugurated by cross-
breeding, careful selection, and constant weeding ; and the
prevailing opinion is, that these possess certain desirable quali-
fications which render them more profitable than their parent
races. Still there are those who deny this, and contend that
there are pure breeds of sheep that can supply every requi-
site. Be that as it may, the case is much stronger with regard
to the horse ; for there is no one who would contend that the
qualifications of a first-class weight-carrying hunter can be met
Avith in any one pure or original breed, or that it can be other-
wise secured than by the well-assorted alliance of blood and bone.
Surely, then, if with sheep we can succeed in the course of twenty
years in establishing a distinct breed, we can with equal or
greater ease establish a breed of horses that will support with
ease a six-foot guardsman with his heavy accoutrements, and
dash into the charge with all the speed and spirit induced by
the influence of a full equivalent of blood derived from both
parents. The French are already trying this system ; and if we
are remiss, Avill in a few years surpass our cavalry in its most
essential characteristic. There can be no reason why the defects
Avhich crop out after the first cross should not be as readily
extinguished in the horse as in the sheep.

It is as well to notice, that valuable as is the Norfolk trotting
stallion, when put to well-bred mares for breeding hacks, he is
as a rule too deficient in size to get dragoon-horses, or those
v/eight-carrying hunters which have been the glory of our land.

One argument adduced by the advocates of the universal em-
ployment of the full-blood sire is somewhat plausible, and has not
perhaps been sufficiently disposed of. They say, it is desirable
to have a pure-blood on one side at least, so that defects apper-

M 2

164 Ctoss- Breeding in Horses.

taining to tlie progenitors, but not apparent in tlie parents, may
not, as in mixed pedigree, reappear in the offspring. This
argument is good to a certain extent, but it applies equally to
each parent, and if it can be dispensed with in the case of
the mare in order to secure size and boHe, it may also be given
up for ec[ual advantages in that of the sire, who would not
have been devoted to the stud unless in addition to his pure
lineage on one side, he had derived from the other some rare
hunting qualifications and sterling merits which it would be most
desirable to perpetuate.

Conclusions.

We have endeavoured in our preceding remarks to establish
the correctness of the following points : —

(a) That the use of the thorough-bred horse or mare has
greatly improved the coarser bred in speed and in bottom. That
the blood has amalgamated exceedingly well Avith other breeds,
and that the good results of even one cross only has been seen in
various degrees and for several generations.

(b) That the effect of crossing with the thorough-bred is to
increase the supremacy of the nervous and the muscular systems,
and is more particularly shown in the fuller development of the
thighs, the hind-quarters, and the elongation of the muscles
generally. But that with these advantages the bones, joints,
ligaments, and sinews are smaller and less powerful, and the
action, although quickened, is rendered lower and less safe.
The ability for jumping and for carrying heavy weights without
injury to the joints and sinews, is greatly diminished. The skin
is also rendered thinner and more liable to abrasion, the carcass
smaller, and there is a diminished capability for putting on
flesh.

(c) That so long as suitable mares with sufficient substance
can be procured, the breeder of hunters should, on the rare
occasions when they are offered, avail himself of the services of a
first-class thorough-bred stallion, or even one of the second class,
provided he has hunting qualifications, — good substance, or good
high action in the trot or walk.

(d) If, going a step further in the same direction, the breeder
seeks to put the female progeny to the blood-horse, he will most
frequently fail ; the offspring becoming too light ; whilst if he
had availed himself of the half-bred or threeparts-bred stallion
(the grandson of a great racehorse), his stock having the same
amount of breeding as the dam, would have afforded him a fair
chance of realising a high price, and failing this, a compara-
tive certainty of a fair sale for the cavalry, or for the general
market.

Cross-B reeding in Horses. 165

(e) Having duly recognised the claims of thorough-bred horses
of the first and second class, we can only advise, with regard to
the third and inferior classes, that their services be altogether
dispensed with, their place being taken by three-fourths, or half-
bred stallions, possessing bone, substance, and good hunting
qualifications. And it is such animals as these that deserve
encouragement from our great Agricultural Societies,
i For the encouragement of horses of this stamp we should be
glad to see prizes offered for the best seven-eighths, three-fourths,
and half-bred stallions, so that the owners of promising horses
might be induced to delay the operation of castration until the
animals had undergone the ordeal of the show-yard, and the
prize-winners might be launched into the world with the Society's
approval. Some of the prizes for ponies might well be dispensed
with to provide money, if it be wanting, for this more important
purpose. At any rate, it may be hoped that the Council of the
Royal Agricultural Society will remove the impediments which
shut out such a horse as " British Statesman," the first-prize
winner at Battersea, and the second at Leeds, from competing at
Newcastle among the stallions for breeding-hunters. The flaw
in his pedigree, one-eighth, gave him, no doubt, more bone,
sinew, and substance generally, and rendered him fit to carry an
extra stone in weight, qualifications which doubtless gained him
the prize of 20Z., offered by the gentlemen hunting the North
Staffordshire hounds, for the best stallion for hunting horses.

This suggestion is not meant to imply that prizes for thorough-
bred stallions should be dispensed with : on the contrary, if the
state of the Society's funds permit, separate prizes should be
offered for thorough-bred sires, adapted —

1. For getting Hunters ;

2. For Carriage Horses;

3. For Park Horses, Chargers, or Hacks.

Prizes in each of these classes would then be assigned to
animals differing much in character, but no longer, as at present,
to the best racehorse, or according to the rather puzzling and
peculiar condition of the prize-sheet, "to the horse best calculated
to perpetuate the breed of the sound and the stout thorough-
bred horse for general stud-purposes." Such a horse must un-
questionably be neither more nor less than the sire of the greatest
racehorses of the day.

But if this is too wide range for an Agricultural Society, the
Managers of the Islington horse show may take this hint into
consideration.

Those of our readers who Avere present at the splendid ex-
hibition of thorough-bred stallions in the Agricultural Hall last
summer, must have been struck with the great variety that

166 Cross-Breeding in Horses.

obtains in the shape and action of the thorough-breds then
exhibited, and miijht, without any assistance from the judges,
point out the particular horses with suitable characteristics for
each of the several purposes above mentioned, " Caractacus " and
" Nutborne " may be taken as correct examples of the true race-
horse. The sprightly " Neville," with his splendid knee-action,
may be regarded as the proper' sire of the charger and the park-
hack, whilst the powerful " Warlike," with his compact frame, is
the very type of a weight-carrving hunter, so far as a blood-horse
can be one. "Newcastle,"' the favourite of the judges, might
put in a claim either as a hunting-sire for a moderate weight,
or, with his fine action and good legs, as the sire of a charger or
park-hack ; and he probably gained his honours because he was
tliought to combine best in his own person the several and
diverse qualifications required bv the conditions of the prize-
sheet. There were also some fine showy animals, with long
arching necks and grand action, that might properly be con-
sidered as suitable sires for hiffh-bred carriage-horses.

XII. — Report on the Royal Veterinanj College.

The Governors of the Royal Veterinary College have the
pleasure of transmitting to the Council of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society the Annual Report for the past year.

The Governors can assure the Council that the same means
which they have hitherto found effective for imparting to the
students in the College scientific information upon the diseases
and treatment of cattle, sheep, and pigs, as part of the regular
education that the College affords, have been perseveringly and
successfully carried out.

Four lectures per week, in addition to demonstrations and
practical instruction, have been delivered by the Professor of
Cattle Pathology. The arrangement pursued in these lectures
is scientific, and, as far as the means at the disposal of the Pro-
fessor permit, practical and demonstrative.

The Governors have sought further opportunities for illus-
trating disease, and would willingly connect the education
afforded by the College more closely with the practical teaching
of Cattle Pathology, which can be obtained only in the country ;
hitherto the Governors have been compelled to rest satisfied
with the inculcation of scientific knowledge illustrated as far as
the opportunities of the College would admit, but to leave the
general application of this knowledge to be more largely studied
elsewhere.

Report on the Royal Veterinary College. 167

In order to test tlie advancement made by tlie pupils in their
studies, examinations are held from time to time rather upon
the tutorial than the professorial system, and at the close of the
sessional course of lectures a more searching and general exami-
nation is hold.

At the end of the second sessional course of lectures — that is,
in the second year of the pupils' studies — an examination, called
the final examination, takes place, which if not passed to the
satisfaction of the Professors, the student does not receive his
certificate, entitling him to present himself before the Court of
Examiners of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, the
possession of whose diploma constitutes him a legally qualified
member of the profession.

By the rules of the College it is provided that every student
so presenting himself shall be examined in the anatomy, phy-
siology, and pathology of the ox, sheep, and pig, as well as of
the horse and dog, for the same space of time as in the other
divisions of his studies ; and his rejection or otherwise is inade
to depend equally on his answers to the questions propounded
in this section as in the others.

In order to stimulate the students, and to encourage their
ready concurrence in the discipline of the College, the Governors
have of late years revised the terms of competition for the
*' Coleman Medal," with which are connected first and second
prizes, and a certificate of merit, as well as a third piize for the
three students who shall pass the best examination at the close
of their studies, conducted by the Professors. Hence it will be
seen that due care has been taken that the pathology of cattle
shall receive the same degree of attention in this examination
as the other branches of instruction.

The number of students who entered the College during the
year was fifty — this being the average number ; thirty-nine
students presented themselves before the Court of Examiners of
the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons ; thirty-seven passed,
and two only were rejected.

The Governors trust that the Council of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society will perceive from this statement that the system
of education in the College is well calculated to provide the
agricultural community with veterinary surgeons competent to
treat the diseases of their cattle on the established principles of
medical science, whereby great losses are averted.

The Governors, having observed the increase of diseases
among cattle and sheep, arising from attacks of parasites, espe-
cially the entozoa, have afforded every facility to Professor
Simonds for pursuing an intricate and important inquiry on this
subject ; and they learn with satisfaction that, in addition to the

168 Report on the Royal Veterinary College.

lecture given by him last year before the Society, he is prepared
to furnish the agricultural community with further information
through the pages of the Society's Journal.

The Governors have also observed with satisfaction that the
Lecture which the Professor recently delivered before the Society
on the smallpox in sheep was duly appreciated ; and they trust
that his exertions may assist in the prevention of this fatal
malady, and thus render an important service both to agricul-
turists and the public generally. The report of the Vaccination
of Sheep, alluded to last year by the Governors, has been sent in
to the Government. In making this remark, the Governors
would observe, that they have been informed that neither of the
Commissioners, Mr. Marson, resident surgeon of the Smallpox
Hospital, nor Professor Simonds, antlci])ated other than a nega-
tive result from their experiments, and that this opinion was
communicated to the Government prior to the commencement
of the investigation. For fuller information of the proceedings
of the Commission, the Governors Avould direct the attention of
the Council to the Report which has very recently been published
by the Government.

During the past year a more satisfactory supply of morbid
specimens, illustrative of various diseases, has been received
from veterinary surgeons, and also from agriculturists ; but so
strong is the sense of the Governors of the necessity for illus-
tration, that they have placed 50/. in the hands of the Principal
for the purpose of procuring additional specimens for the in-
structi(m of the students in cattle pathology.

The number of patients which has been admitted into the
College Infirmary during the year has somewhat exceeded the
average. Among the cases of interest may be enumerated the
following. A young Hereford bull, affected with umbilical
rupture, complicated with a fungoid growth from the navel,
the result of injury to the cord at the time of birth. The animal
was operated upon with success, and after his recovery was re-
turned to his owner with every indication of his becoming useful
for stock purposes.

Two sheep, subject to the disease known in Sussex by the
vulgar term of " goggles," a name probably given from a
peculiar expression of the eye of the animal, especially in an
advanced state of the disease, have also been received. The
affection proved fatal in both instances after the animals had
been about a month in the infirmary ; and although a most
searching post-mortem examination was instituted in both cases,
the precise nature of this singular disease remains to be ascer-
tained. The term " goggles " has been used as synonymous with
vertigo^ the malady in which an hydatid exists in the brain of

Report on the Royal Veterinary College. 169

the animal : the cause of the vertigo, however, is patent, but
that of the other disease is still hidden. Many practical agri-
culturists assert that the disease is hereditary, and, if once intro-
duced into a flock, can never be eradicated except by the destruc-
tion of the whole flock ; they also hold the opinion that the
disease occasionally passes by the immediate offspring, but
shows itself in the second or third generation. These facts and
opinions prove the necessity of further research ; but this cannot
be carried on successfully without the co-operation of flock-
masters, since a long-continued series of experiments and obser-
vations may be requisite ; the Governors therefore would be glad
to invite, through the intervention of the Council, the attention
of sheep-owners to this subject, in the hope that some may be
found who will afford the requisite facilities for investigation.

Among the animals which afforded most valuable informa-
tion for the pupils, mention may also be made of a cow affected
with scrofula. The animal was only three years of age, and the
disease had evidently been inherited from her parents. The
Governors are informed that a few years ago this disease was by
no means unfrequent among even the purest bred cattle which
were exhibited at the Society's Shows ; but that, owing to the
inspection conducted by their Professors, and the disqualifica-
tion of the infected animals, few instances of the disease now
occur.

A bull also, which died in the infirmary, afforded the students
the opportunity of seeing an original case of abscess in the liver,
in which nature made an effort to discharge the pus through the
medium of the lungs ; the progress of the disease, and the imme-
diate cause of the death of the animal, were thus practically
illustrated.

Another instructive case was that of a cow affected with a
large abscess in the chest, associated with the absorption of a
considerable portion of the bones of the sternum.
' In a practical as well as a medical point of view cases such
as are here mentioned are of great importance in the education
of the student, as they not only afford the Professor an oppor-
tunity of making clinical remarks upon their nature and conse-
quences, but also upon the modifications and the progress of
disease in different animals.

During the year a large number of the members of the Society
have sought advice from the College on various subjects con-
nected with the health of their cattle, sheep, and pigs ; such
advice has been promptly rendered and acknowledged in most
instances, as having been of great value. Investigations also
have been made by Professor Simonds on various farms, which

170 Report on the Royal Veterinary College.

have been attended with beneficial results in checking the progress
of disease.

Notwithstanding the great public excitement which has existed
with regard to epizootic diseases among cattle, the Governors
are assured that both pleuro-pneumonla, and also the mouth and
foot disease, have been less rife than in many former years, and
that the first-named malady has been brought far more under
control. In several instances pleuro-pneumonia has, the Governors
hope and believe, been effectually clu'cked in its progress by the
adoption of the advice tendered by their Professor.

Although what may be called the established epizootics have
been less prevalent, a peculiar disease of the nature of diphtheria
has affected pigs in several parts of the country. This disease,
however, has apparently passed its climax, and seems now to be
on the decline. The sanitary measures recommended by the
Professors were attended with marked benefit by keeping the
malady in check ; but further investigations into its pathology
are required, and in this, as in other analogous cases, the
Governors invite the co-operation of the Society.

Notwithstanding the advance which the science of cattle
pathology is making under the svstcm of co-operation which
exists between the Royal Agricultural Society and the Royal
Veterinary College, the Governors have had under consideration
the question of rendering the College — if possible — even more
effective ; and thev entertain hopes of being able hereafter to
adopt still more effectual measures for the promotion of the
common objects of the College and the Society. In order, how-
ever, to effect the objects which the Governors have contem-
plated, it is necessary that they should engage the co-operation,
consult with, and in great measure be guided by the opinions
of the veterinary profession generally, which can only be obtained
by private communication with the leading members of that
body, many of whom have been educated at the College.

The Governors of the College, who are also members of the
Council of the Agricultural Society, will be able to inform the
Council, that at no period since the system of co-operation
between the two bodies was established have the Governors paid
more attention to the advancement of their common objects than
during the present vear, or have made greater exertions in this
sense.

The Governors desire, in conclusion, to draw the attention of
the Members of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society
to the substance of several standing orders which they have
adopted. One of these orders is to the effect : That at the
commencement of each session some special subject of cattle-

Report on the Royal Veterinary College. \ 171

pathology, for investigation by the Professors, be determined upon
by the Governors of the College ; and that suggestions upon
this subject be invited from the Veterinary Committee of the
Royal Agricultural Society, and that these subjects be treated in
the Annual Reports of the Royal Veterinary College to the
Royal Agricultural Society.

By another standing order the Governors have directed that
a prize medal be given annually to the student who shall pass
the best examination on cattle-pathology.

The Governors have already mentioned, in connexion with
this subject, that the sum of 50Z. out of the funds of the College
will be annually appropriated for the purchase of diseased
animals.

Not satisfied, however, with this arrangement, and conscious
that without the voluntary co-operation of stock-masters it must
prove inadequate, the Governors have further resolved upon
tendering to the public the advantages which the following reso-
lution conveys, viz. : —

That diseased cattle, sheep, or pigs, although the property of
a non- subscriber, may, at the direction of the Principal, be
admitted to the Infirmary of the College for treatment, free of all
cost, except for their keep, at the rate of Is. per night each for
cattle, and 6<f. per night each for sheep and pigs ; provided that
authority shall be given, in writing, by the owner to the Principal,
at the time of admission, to have destroyed or to sell any such
animal in the event of its not being taken from the College after
two days' notice to the owner for its removal.

In order to provide adequate accommodation for the increase
of patients to the Infirmary under these regulations, the
Governors have erected several new boxes and sheds for diseased
cattle and sheep at considerable cost to the funds of the College.

The Governors of the Royal Veterinary College trust that the
substance of this Report, as explained — if explanation is necessary
— by the Members of the Council, who are also Governors of
the College, will satisfy the Royal Agricultural Society that the
Governors are pursuing the objects common to the two bodies
with unabated attention and increased vigour.

C. N. Newdegate, Chairman.

Edward Kerrison.

Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, Sept. 1864.

( 172 )

XIII. — Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption
in the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert.

Although the Metropolitan Cattle Market was extensively
supplied with most breeds of beasts during the last six months
of 18G4, there was a great deficiency in the weight of meat
disposed of — indeed, fully half of the stock on offer was beneath
the middle quality. The severe drought experienced during the
summer months, and the consequent want of grass, and the serious
deficiency in the turnip-crop over the whole of our grazing
districts, compelled the graziers to purchase large additional
quantities of linseed and cake, and had great influence upon
prices. At one period really prime Scots and crosses produced as
much as G.s. per 8 lbs. ; and even the more general range in their
value was 5.s-. Gd. and 5s. Sd. per 8 lbs. These high rates fully
justified our anticipations. From the circumstance that beasts
have fattened slowly during the last three or four months, and
that the numbers in the stalls in our leading counties are very
moderate for the time of year, it is evident that there is little or
no prospect of any important decline in current rates between
this and the close of the Norfolk " season." During the six
months only 60,350 beasts arrived in the Metropolitan Market
from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire, against
66,510 head in 1863, and 74,570 in 1862. The deficiency in
the arrivals from the above districts was not confined to numbers
only, since fully one-third of them were only fit for second and
third class consumption. From the eastern districts an increased
number of beasts was reported ; but the comparative excess in
the supply arose solely from many of the graziers being com-
pelled to dispose of a portion of their stock much earlier than
usual. Other parts of England furnished a very middling show
of stock, both as to number and quality. From Scotland, how-
ever, the arrivals were a full average, and in wonderfully fine
condition ; indeed, scarcely an inferior bullock arrived from that
quarter. The drought in Scotland was much less severely felt
than in England ; the turnip and potato crops have turned out
well, and of good quality; and stock generally has fattened quite
as rapidly as in the most favoured seasons. Ireland furnished
only 7079 beasts, against 11,280 in 1863, and 14,820 in 1862.
As the Irish stock has shown no improvement, sales have pro-
gressed slowly, at moderate rates.

The annexed return shows the quarters from whence the
supplies of beasts were derived in the last six months of the last
five years ; —

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, Sfc.
District Bulloch Arrivals.

173

Last half of year.

Northern
Districts.

Eastern
Districts.

Other parts of
England.

Scotland.

Ireland.

1860 .. ..

1861 .. ..

1862 .. ..

1863 .. ..

1864 .. ..

66,140
71,450
74,570
66,510
60,350

9500
2500
5050
3850
8400

20,500
9,700
19,620
21,250
19,400

1151
4586
3307
3213
3625

7,852
14,340
14,820
11,280

7,079

This is certainly a most unsatisfactory statement as a whole.
The consumption in London is increasing every year ; prices
have continued to improve ; and even the excessive importations
from the Continent have failed to affect the value of English
stock. The question, therefore, of an adequate supply of food
has become a serious one, more especially as the foreign arrivals,
with very few exceptions, are still very deficient in quality.
The foreign sheep have shown very little improvement, although
some few of them have sold as high as 785. and even SOs. each.
They still continue, however, to carry a large quantity of internal
fat. Foreign calves, which now form three-fourths of the sup-
plies, have sold steadily ; and fair prices have been made for
pigs, although the importations exceeded all previous years.
The arrivals into London were shipped from the under-mentioned
ports : —

Imports of Foreign StocJc into London during the last Six Months of 1864.

From

Beasts.

Sheep.

Lambs.

Calves.

Pigs.

Amsterdam .

372

1,473

2

61

Antwerp

122

32

..

754

369

Boulogne "' .

152

15

..

175

4,675

Bremen ..

5,386

1,890

172

1

..

Cadiz

139

..

^^

Calais . .

..

60

88

1,433

Dordt . . .

2,990

15,467

3,333

51

18

Dunkirk

127

157

2,579

Gibraltar

605

..

, ,

Hamburg

1,829

25,406

154

44

3,415

Harlingen

9,900

26,912

1,491

2,437

10,324

Havre . .

1

.,

..

, .

Lyston . .

20

..

..

..

, ,

Medemblik .

2,393

30,628

1

228

4

Nieu Dieppe .

249

2,140

,.

258

8

Oporto ..

392

Ostend . .

632

503

31

515

575

Kotterdam .

22,198

92,849

3,177

12,021

7,403

Tonning

28,898

29,342

3,043

3

, ,

Vigo .. .

587

••

Total .

76,992

226,657

11,464

16,793

30,803

174

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat

Here we have a total supply from abroad of no less than
362,709 head, an increase of 23,630 head on 1863. It will be
perceived that nearly 29,000 beasts were shipped from Tonning-,
but of this large number about 20,000 were only fit for grazing
purposes. Rotterdam comes next in importance. The Dutch
stock, however, was very inferior in quality to that imported in
1862 and 1863. The same remark may be applied to the
arrivals from most other quarters ; consequently, the addition to
our supply of animal food was comparatively small. Rather a
large business has been passing in foreign pigs. For the most
part they have arrived in fair condition, but the prices realised
for them have been very low, viz. from 3^. Sd. to 4^. 2d. per 8 lbs.
The imports of foreign stock into the United Kingdom during
the last six months of the under-mentioned years were : —

Imports into the United Kingdom.

Last half of year.

Beasts.

1803
1862

leci

1800

61 ,435
57,350
.59,049
59,817

Sheep
and l^nil>s.

241,209
250,140
266,249
243,804

Calves.

17,497
19,610
19,715
19,594

rigs.

18,936
17,279
25,919
21,510

The aggregate supplies of each kind of stock cxliibited in
the great Metropolitan Cattle Market in the last six months
were : —

Head.

Beasts 177,944

Cows 3,221

Sheep and lambs 769,814

Calves 17,967

Pigs 19,306

In the four previous seasons, ending with 1863, the show of
stock was as follows : —

Total Supplies of Stocic Exhibited.

Last half of year. ,

Beasts.

Cows.

Sheep and Lambs.

Calves.

Pigs.

1860 .. ..

1861 .. ..

1862 .. ..

1863 .. ..

145,420
149,7.50
159.450
168,232

3015
3187
3148
3127

762 , 740
774,260
759,671
761,070

15,766
12,441
12,579
14,822

15,470
20,116
18,220
17,550

The lowest average value of inferior beasts in 1864 was 3^. 6d. ;
of middling stock, 4^. Qd. ; and prime, 55. Qd. per 8 lbs. The
heavy arrivals from the Continent prevented any rise of moment
in the former quotation ; but in the latter there was an advance

for Consumption in the Metropolis.

175

of 6c?. per 8 lbs. Sheep were the turn clearer. Lambs sold at
from 5^. &d. to 85. ; calves, As. to 5^. lOd. ; and pigs, 3;?. 6f/. to
55. per 8 lbs., to sink the offal. The following selection from
the six months' averages will illustrate the recent rise in prices : —

Average Prices of Beef and Mutton.

Per 8 lbs., to sink the Offal.
Beef.

Inferior

Middling

Prime

1860.

1861.

1862.

1863.

1864.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

2 8

3

3 2

3 4

3 6

4

4

4

4 2

4 6

5 4

5

4 10

5

5 6

Mutton'.

Inferior

Middling

Prime

1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864

s. d.

3 2

4 6

5 10

s. c?.

3 2

4 6

5 8

s. d

3 8

4 8

5 6

s. d.

4

5
5 10

s. d.

4 2

5 2
5 10

Although the supply of rough fat has been very moderate, the
demand for it has been heavy at 2s. l\d, and 2s. Id. per 8 lbs.
The great falling off in the exports of tallow from St. Petersburg,
as well as from Australia, the Cape, &c., has had very little
influence upon the value of fat. That article has consequently
ceased to be of much profit to the butchers.

Fair average supplies of meat have been on sale in Newgate
and Leadenhall Markets. Generally speaking, the trade has
ruled steady, at comparatively high rates. Beef has realised
2s. 10<:Z. to 5^. ; mutton, Si'. 6c?. to 5^. ; lamb, 5^. to Is. 4c?. ;
veal, 3^. 8f?. to 55. 4f/. ; pork, 35. Ad. to 55. per 8 lbs. by the
carcase.

Letters from Holland and Germany state that unusually heavy
shipments of stock will be made to England in 1865. The
want of adequate supplies of food in both countries does not
favour the impression entertained in some quarters, that these
supplies will reach us in imjiroved condition. It may therefore
be safely assumed that we shall have high rates for both beasts
and sheep for several months. The few shorn sheep disposed of
in the metropolis have sold at Is. 2d. per 8 lbs. below those in
the wool. This wide difference must be attributed to the
scarcity of wool in the country, notwithstanding that the arrivals

176

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, ^'c.

from our colonies and foreign ports in 1864 were on a very
extensive scale. The three years' importations were : —

1862. 1863. 1864.

Colouial
Foreign

•Bales.

345,G05
222,063

Bales.

375,010
' 220,316

Bales.

430,395
240,512

Total

. .. 567,668 595,326 670,907

The exports to the Continent were only moderate, consequently
the bulk of the importations passed into consumption in this
country. It may be remarked, however, that, whilst foreign and
colonial wools have receded in value, owing to the high rates
prevalent in the discount market, English qualities have been
on the advance, with more than usual activity in the demand.
The quotations for home-grown wool in the metropolis at the
close of the last two years were : —

1863. 1864.

Fleeces : —

South Down boggetts

Half-bred boggetts

Kent fleeces

South Down ewes and wethers

Leicester ditto

Sorts : —

Clothing picklock

Prime and picklock

Choice

Super

Combing : —

Wether matching

Picklock

Common

; Hog matching

Picklock matching

Super ditto

rer lb.

s. d. s, d.

1 loi to 1 Hi

Oi

Hi

9

lOi

d.

Per lb.

11

8
9i

to 2
to 1
to 1
to 1

1 9i to 1 10

1 8i to 1 9

1 7 to 1 8

1 6 to 1 6i

1 11

1 9

1

2

1

1

to 1

to 1

5 to 1

Oi to 2
8i to 1
5i to 1

Hi
9i
6
li
9
6i

2 to 2 li

2 5 to 2 6

2 2 to 2 2i

1 11 to 2

2 1 to 2 2

2 to 2 Oi

1 10 to 1 lOi

1 9 to 1 9i

1 6 to 1 6i

li to

to

8 to

2 to

to

8 to

2

Oh
10
3
2

10

The high prices still demanded for cotton are calculated to
give considerable support to the value of wool, even though the
present year's clip may turn out equal to that of last season.

XIV. — On the Composition and Nutritive Value of Palm-nut
Kernel Meal and Cake. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker.

This, comparatively speaking, new feeding-material is the
residue obtained on submitting to strong pressure the oleaginous
kernels of the palm-nut. These kernels are encased in a thick
brown shell of woody matter, and this is surrounded by a deep

Nutritive Value of Palm-nut Kernal Meal and Cake. 177

orange-coloured pulp, from wliicli the palm-oil of commerce is
produced by gentle pressure.

The bulk of palm-nut kernels, which is nearly white, is
covered by a thin brownish layer of woody fibre, and in conse-
quence of which palm-nut meal has a light brown or dirt-coloured
appearance.

The size of these kernels varies from that of a hazel-nut to that of
a small pigeon-egg ; they are very hard, nearly inodorous, rather
insipid to the taste, and very rich in fatty matters, possessing
the consistency of butter, and useful property of not readily
turning rancid. The extraction of the fatty matters neces-
sitates the reduction of the kernels into a tolerably fine powder,
and the application of powerful crushing-machinery and gentle
heat. Notwithstanding these means, the cake or meal left in the