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35th Congress, ) SENATE. \ Mrs. Doc.

Is;; Session. S I ^^- '^^^'

ANNUAL REPORT

BOARD OF REGENTS

SMITHSOIIAN INSTITUTION

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1857.

"WASHINGTON:
WILLIAM A. HARRIS, PRINTER.

1858.

In Senate of the United States,

June 3, 1858.

Resolved That ten thousand additional copies of the Eeport of the Board of Regents of
thfsSsonian Institution for the year 1857 he printed ; five thousand for the u. th

senate, and five thousand for the use of ^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
a^^rp^te mimber of imges contained m said report bhall not exceea loui
JSnal wTtLt^oodcutsor plate., exoept those furnished hy the Insftufon :^^
!™«/ ;'." That the entire amonntof copy necessary to complete said Report he pW
r.hfh™as,;f the superintendent of the Pubiic Prhrting hefore the conrmencen.ent of
printing any portion of said Eeport.

ASBURY DICKINS, Secretary.

LETTER

SECRETARY OE THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

COMMUNICATINQ

The Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the
Smithsonian Institution for the year 1857.

May 27, 1858.— Read.

June 12, 1858. — Ordered to be printed ; and that 10,000 additional copies be printed, 5,000
of which for the use of the Senate, and 5,000 for the use of the Smithsonian Institution.

Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, May 26, 1858.
Sir : In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the Senate of the United States the Annual Report of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year 1857.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution,
Hon. John C. Breckinridge,

President of the Senate.

ANNUAL EEPORT

BOAED OF EEGENTS

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION UP TO JANUARY
1, 1858, AND THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD UP TO MAY 19, 1858.

To the Senate and House of Bepresentatives :

In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establisliing
the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the Regents,
submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expenditures, and
condition of the Institution, the following documents :

1. The Annual Eeport of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations of the Institution during the year 185*7.

2. Report of the Executive Committee^ giving a general statement
of the proceeds and disposition of the Smithsonian fund, and also an
account of the expenditures for the year 185*7.

3. Report of the Building Committee.

4. Proceedings of the Board of Regents up to May 19, 1858.

5. Appendix.
Respectfully submitted.

R. B. TANEY, Chancellor.
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

OFFICERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

JAMES BUCHANAN, Ex officio Presiding Officer of the Institution.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chancellor of the Institution.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Institution.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.
W. W. SEATON, Treasurer.
WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

ALEXANDER D. BACHE, '\

JAMES A. PEARCE, y Executive Committee.

JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, J

RICHARD RUSH, "j

WILLIAM H. ENGLISH, }. Building Committed.

JOSEPH HENRY, j

EEGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States.
ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.
JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.
JAMES A. PEARCE, member of the Senate of the United States.
JAMES M. MASON, member of the Senate of the United States.
STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS, member of the Senate of the United States,
WILLIAM H. ENGLISH, member of the House of Representatives.
L. J. GARTRELL, member of the House of Representatives.
BENJAMIN STANTON, member of the House of Representatives.
GIDEON HAWLEY, citizen of New York.
RICHARD RUSH, citizen of Pennsylvania.
GEORGE E. BADGER, citizen of North Carolina.
CORNELIUS C. FELTON, citizen of Massachusetts.
ALEXANDER D. BACHE, citizen of Washington.
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, citizen of Washington.

MEMBEES EX OFFICIO OF THE II^STIT UTION.

JAMES BUCHANAN, President of the United States.

JOHN C. BRECKINRIDGE, Vice President of the United States.

LEWIS CASS, Secretary of State.

HOWELL COBB, Secretary of the Treasury.

JOHN B. FLOYD, Secretary of War.

ISAAC TOUCEY, Secretary of tlie Navy.

AARON V. BROWN, Postmaster General.

J. S. BLACK, Attorney General.

ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Ju-t:-«^ of the United States.

JOSEPH HOLT, Commissioner of Patents.

JAMES G. BERRET, Mayor of the City of Washington.

HONOEAKY MEMBEES.

uC

ROBERT HARE, of Pennsylvania.
WASHINGTON IRVING, of New York. .
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, of Connecticut.
PARKER CLEAVELAND, of Maine.
A. B. LONGSTREET, of Mississippi.
JACOB THOMPSON, Secretary of Uie Interior

PEOfiRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

[PRESENTED I\ THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]

INTRODUCTION.

General considerations ivhich should serve as a guide in adopting a
Flan of Organization.

1. Will of Smithson. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, " to found at Washington, under the name of the
Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men,"

2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government of
the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of the
testator.

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate h's name.

4. The ( jects of the Institution are, 1st, to increase, and 2d, to
diffuse knowledge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addi-
tion of new truths ; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus
increased, among men.

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge ; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge can be increased by difterent methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths ; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press.

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should
be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of
increasing and difi'usiug knowledge, which cannot be produced either
at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.

9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted provi-
sionally, can be easily reduced to practice, receive modifications, or be
abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.

10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time
occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,

8 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

a considerable portion of the interest which, has accrue"?, should be
added to the principal.

11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultit^aied,
the funds are small. Economy should therefore be consulted in the
construction of the building ; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals permanently sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of organization, and not the converse.

13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be bene-
fitted by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary expenditure
on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations deduced immediately from
the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements
of the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a
library, a museum, and a gallery of art^ with a building on a liberal
scale to contain them.

SECTION I.

Plan of Organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

To Increase Knowledge. It is proposed —

1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer-
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths ; and

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income lor particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons.

To Diffuse Knowledge. It is proposed —

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge ; and

2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.

I. — By stimulating researches.

1. Facilities afforded for the production of original memoirs on all
branches of knowledge.

2. The memoirs tlius obtained to be published in a series of volumes,
in a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
ledge.

3. No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for
publication which does not furnish a positive addition to human
knowledge, resting on original research ; and all unverified specula-
tions to be rejected.

4. Each memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for
examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9

the brancli to which the memoir pertains ; and to be accepted for pub-
lic '"ion only in case the report of this commission is favorable.

5. The comm^*''sion to be chosen hy the officers of the Institution,
and the name ot the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless a
favorable decision be made.

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transactions
of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all the
colleges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the
remaining copies may be offered for sale; and the other carefully pre-
served, to form complete sets of the work, to supply the demand from
new institutions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these memoirs
to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents to
Congress.

II. — By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects of
research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to be recommended
by counsellors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different objects, so that, in
course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge.

4. Examples of objects tor which appropriations may be made.
(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the

problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological^
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the
formation of a Physical Atlas of the United States.

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determination
of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and of light ;
chemical analyses of soils and plants ; collection and publication of
scientific facts^ accumulated in the offices of government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects.

(5.) Historical researches and accurate surveys of j^laces celebrated
in American history.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the dif-
ferent races of men in North America; also, explorations and accurate
surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of our
country.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I. — By tlie publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in
all branches of knoivledge not strictly professional,

1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally interest-
ing, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of the

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as the
income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of knowledge
may indicate.

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the
different branches of knowledge.

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica-
tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report;
to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title-
page of the report.

4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons
interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it
without purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress for partial distri-
bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific
institutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in
the reports :

I. PHYSICAL CLASS.

1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry,
and meteorology.

2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.

3. Agriculture.

4. Application of science to arts.

II. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.

5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology,
antiquities, &c.

6. Statistics and political economy.
T. Mental and moral philosophy.

8. A survey of the political events of the world, penal reform, &c.

III. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.

9. Modern literature.

10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.

11. Bibliography.

12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.

II. By the puUication of separate treatises on suhjects of generol interest.

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission
of competent judges previous to their publication.

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 11

3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of
the present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in
the table of reports.

SECTION II.

Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of
the Board of Begents providing for the two modes of increasing and

diffusing hioioledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated
the formation of a library and a museum ; and the Board of Kegents,
including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income* into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge
by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme
before given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of
a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art,

3. These two plans are not incompatible one with another.

4. To carry out the plan before described^ a library will be required,
consisting, 1st, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world ; 2d, of the more
important current periodical publications, and other works necessary
in preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of
objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of
experimental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those men-
tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graphical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any work
which he may require.

9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary
to purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art casts
of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex-
pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies.

* The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the Treasury of the

United States is $515,169 00

Interest on the same to July 1, 1846, (devoted to the erection of the

building) 242,129 00

Annual income from tJie bequest. , 30,910 14

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

12. A small appropriation sliould annually be made for models of
antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.

13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, be-
sides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except
one, to act as librarian.

14. The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to
the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property,
keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and
keejjer of the museum, and may, with the consent of i;he Regents,
employ assistants.

15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress,
will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit
new objects of art ; distinguished individuals should also be invited to
give lectures on subjects of general interest.

This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has be-
come the settled policy of the Institution. The only material change
is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted January 15^
1855, viz :

Itesolved, That the 7th resolution passed by the Board of Regents,
on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the in-
come between the active operations and the museum and library,
when the buildings are completed, be and it is hereby repealed.

Resolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor-
tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the
Institution, in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents,
be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic import-
ance, and a compliance in good faith with the law.

EEPOET or THE SECEETARY EOE 1857

To the Board of Regents:

Gentlemen : It again becomes my duty to present to you the
history of the operations of another year of the Institution which
the government of the United States has entrusted to your care. In
an establishment of this kind, of which the policy has been settled
and is strictly adhered to, there must of necessity be much sameness in
the general form and character of the successive reports ; but since
the field of science is boundless, and new portions of it are continually
presented for investigation, there will always be found in the details,
facts of sufficient interest to relieve the routine of the statements
relative to the condition of the funds and the scrutiny of the receipts
and expenditures.

It might at first sight appear surprising that so constant a supply
of materials for the Smithsonian Contributions and so many objects of
interest, demanding the assistance of the Smithsonian fund, should
be presented, but it will be evident, on reflection, that this results
from the influence of the Institution itself in increasing the number
of laborers in the field of science, as well as in accumulating the
materials on which they are to be engaged. The tendency is con-
stantly to expand the operations, and much caution and self-control
are necessary to repress the desire to be more liberal in the assistance
rendered to worthy objects, than the income will permit. Indeed, a
charge is frequently made of illiberality for what is the result of re-
stricted means. It must be evident that nothing is more important to
the permanency and proper conduct of the Institution than the cautious
and judicious management of its funds. Any embarrassment in this
quarter would involve a loss of confidence in the directors^ which would
be fatal to the usefulness and efficiency of the establishment.

I have from the first expressed the regret that the original law of
Congress directed the expenditure of so large a portion of the income
on objects of a local character, and this feeling has been increased by
the experience which time has afforded in regard to the good which
could be eflected by a more critical observance of the terms of the

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

"bequest, as well as by the increasing expense of sustaining a large
building, a library, and museum. It is to be hoped, however, that
at least a partial relief will hereafter be afforded by an annual appro-
priation, which it is reasonable to expect government will make for
the keeping and exhibition of the collections of the various exploring
expeditions which have been entrusted to the care of the Regents.

At the last session of Congress an appropriation was made for the
construction and erection of cases to receive the collections of the
United States Exploring Expedition and others in Washington, and
also for the transfer and arrangement of the specimens. This appro-
priation was granted in accordance with the recommendation of the
late Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioner of Patents, in
order that the large room in the Patent Office occupied by the museum
might be used for the more legitimate purposes of that establishment.
We presume that the other part of the recommendation will also be
carried out, namely, that the annual appropriation be continued which
has heretofore been made for the care of this portion of the govern-
ment property. While, on the one hand, no appropriation should be
made which would serve to lessen the distinctive character of Smith-
son's bequest, on the other it is evident that the government should
not impose any burdens upon the Institution which would impair its
usefulness or divert its funds from their legitimate purpose.

It was stated in the last report that the extra fund of the Insti-
tution, which had been saved from the accrued interest, was invested
in State Stocks. This investment was made because the fund was at
the time drawing no interest, and because, until action could be pro-
cured by Congress in relation to receiving said fund into the United
States Treasury, it was deemed the safest disposition of the money.
Though a temporary depreciation of these stocks took place during
the last year, there is no reason to regret the investment. Their
marketable value is at present about the same as it was at the time
they were purchased.

By reference to the report of the Executive Committee it will be
seen that the expenditures during the year, though less than the
amount of receipts, have somewhat exceeded the estimates. This has
been occasioned, first, by unexpected repairs which were found neces-
sary to the building, in consequence of an unprecedented hail storm,
which destroyed several thousand panes of glass and did considerable
injury to the roof and other parts of the edifice ; secondly, by an
expansion of the system of foreign exchanges, rendered necessary by
the large amount of material entrusted to the Institution by the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

different agricultural and other societies of the country ; and thirdly,
the necessity we were under, on account of the financial pressure, of
paying bills for publications which will appear during the present
and the next year. The funds of the Institution are, however, still
in a prosperous condition, but great care is required to prevent the
accumulation of small expenses, which, individually, by reason of
their insignificance, are allowed to occur, but which in the aggregate,
at the end of the year, are found to have swelled into amounts of
considerable magnitude.

Publications. — The ninth annual quarto volume of Contributions to
Knowledge was completed and distributed during the first half of the
year. It is equal in size and importance to the preceding volumes,
and contains the following memoirs :

1. On the relative intensity of the heat and light of the sun upon
different latitudes of the earth. By L. W. Meech.

2. Illustrations of surface geology, by Edward Hitchcock, LL.D.,
of Amherst College.

Part 1. On surface geology, especially that of the Connecticut
valley, in New England.

Part 2. On the erosions of the earth's surface, especially by
rivers.

Part 3. Traces of ancient glaciers in Massachusetts and Ver-
mont.

3. Observations on Mexican history and archa3ology, with a special
notice of Zapotec remains, as delineated in Mr. J. Gr. Sawkins' draw-
ings of Mitla, &c. By Brantz Mayer.

4. Eesearches on the Ammonia Cobalt bases. By Professor Wol-
cott Gibbs and Professor F. A. Genth.

5. New tables for determining the values of the co-efiicients in the
perturbative functions of planetary motion, which depend upon the
ratio of the mean distances. By J. D. Kunkle.

6. Asteroid supplement to new tables for determining the values of

h- and its derivatives. By J. D. Eunkle.

It was stated in the last report that Mr. L. W. Meech proposed to
continue his interesting investigations relative to the heat and light
of the sun, provided the Smithsonian Institution would pay the ex-
pense of the arithmetical computations. Though most of his time is
necessarily occupied in other dutieSj he would cheerfully devote his
leisure hours to the investigation with a view of extending the bounds

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of knowledge. During the past year an appropriation lias been made
of one hundred dollars for the purpose here mentioned, and we are
assured, from what Mr. Meech has already accomplished, that this
sum will be instrumental in producing valuable results. He proposes
to determine, from several elementary formulas, the laws of terres-
trial temperature for different latitudes. The first formula has been
pretty thoroughly applied, and the annual temperature computed by
it compared with the result of actual observation. The diurnal
temperatures have also been deduced and seem to agree with actual
observation within the presumed errors of the latter. The temper-
ature, however, of the surrounding medium, defived from the annual
temperature, differs widely from the results obtained by the diurnal
temperatures. The author is inclined to attribute this difference to a
defect in the law of radiation as generally received, which, deduced
from experiments in the laboratory, he thinks inapplicable to the
phenomena of terrestrial temperature. The second formula takes into
account another cause of the variation of temperature, namely, the
cooling due to the contact of the air ; and the third formula includes
also the effect of the absorption of solar heat in its passage through
the atmosphere. The investigation will include the consideration of —
1st, terrestrial radiation ; 2d, contact of air ; 3d, the sun's intensity ;
4th, atmospheric absorption ; 5th, the difference in radiating power of
luminous heat by day and non-luminous heat by night. Among
other inferences to be deduced is the relative heating or radiating
powers of sea and continent, when the land is covered with foliage
and vegetation, and when it is covered with ice and snow. These
researches are intimately connected with the extended series of obser-
vations on the climate of the United States, now carried on at the
expense and under the direction of the Institution.

The paper of Professor Gibbs and Dr. Genth, which forms a part of
the 9th volume, has been republished in the American Journal of
Science and in the London Chemical Gazette, due credit being given
to the Smithsonian Contributions, from which it was copied. We
regret to be informed by the authors of this interesting paper that
the sum appropriated by the Institution for assisting in defraying the
expense of the materials and apparatus employed in their researches
was scarcely sufficient to compensate for more than one-fourth of their
outlay. Limited means, and not a want of proper appreciation of the
labors of these gentlemen, prevented their entire reimbursement for
the pecuniary loss in the prosecution of their valuable researches.
They intend, notwithstanding this, to continue their investigations,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

and to devote as much time to them as their other engagements and
the means at their disposal will allow. Since this memoir has met
the approval of the scientific world, it will be proper to make as
liberal an appropriation as the demands on the limited income of the
Institution will permit for the continuance of researches in the same
line. The publication of the paper was of comparatively little
expense, since it required no costly illustrations, and this may be an
additional reason for granting a larger appropriation for further in-
vestigations in the same line.

The ninth volume also contains the supplement to the tables by J.
D. Runkle, mentioned in the last report. The tables in this supple-
ment are intended to facilitate calculations with reference to the
asteroids. The search for these bodies has been prosecuted with so
much vigor of late that their list now extends to more than fifty, and
the mechanical labor required to calculate their places is so great that
this can scarcely be expected to be accomplished, except by the use of
general tables. The work of Gauss on the theory of the motion of
the heavenly bodies leaves little to be desired, so far as the deter-
mination of their orbits is concerned ; but this is by no means the
case with regard to their perturbations by the larger planets. The
tables therefore will afford an important means of facilitating the ad,
vance of our knowledge, particularly of this class of the members of
our solar system.

The third part of the Nereis Boreali- Americana, by Dr. Willip^m H.
Harvey, has been completed and will be included in the tenth volume
of the Contributions. Two hundred extra copies of the text of the
preceding parts having been struck off before the distribution of the
types, and the drawings on the lithographic stones having been pre-
served, an equal number of plates from the latter have been printed
and colored, so that we shall be enabled to make up two hundred
copies of the complete work to be offered for sale, which will serve,
it is hoped, to reimburse, in some degree, the heavy expense incurred
in the publication of this interesting addition to the science of botany.
It may be proper to mention that the work was published in numbers,
in order that the whole expense should be defrayed by tlie appro-
priation of different years, as well as to furnish the author the oppor-
tunity of rendering the work more complete by more extended re-
search.

For the purpose of classification, the sea plants have been grouped

2 s

18 EEPOET OF THE SECEETARY.

under three principal heads which are readily distinguished by their
general color.

They are as follows :

1. Melanospermea3 — plants of an olive-green or olive-brown color.

2. Ehodosperme^e, or plants of a rosy-red or purple color.

3. Chlorospermea3, or plants of a grass, rarely of a livid purple
color.

The numbers of the work already published relate to the first two
divisions, and the third, now about to be issued, will contain the last,
with an appendix describing new species discovered since the date of
the former parts.

The text of the first part of the work on Oology, mentioned in pre-
ceding reports, has been printed ; but the publication of the plates to
accompany it will be so expensive that we were obliged to defer it
until the present year. In the meantime the author will proceed with
the preparation of the other parts of the memoir, and the whole will
be completed as soon as the funds of the Institution will permit.
From an accidental oversight in the preparation of the last Eeport, I
neglected to mention the fact that the author of this interesting work
is Dr. Thomas M. Brewer, of Boston. The omission of his name in
the reports would not only be unjust to himself, but might also pre-
vent him from receiving in some cases additional information relative
to his labors from correspondents who are engaged in the same line of
research. The announcement of the fact of the intended publication
of this memoir has induced a number of persons to enter into corre-
spondence with the Institution on the subject, and we doubt not that
these remarks will tend to call forth other additioxis to our knowledge
of this branch of natural history.

Since the date of the last Report a grammar and dictionary of the
Yoruba language of Africa have been accepted for publication. Thi
work is another contribution from the missionary enterprise of the
present day, and has been prepared by the Eev. Thos. J. Bowen, of
the Southern Baptist Missionary Board, from materials collected
during a residence of six years in Africa, and revised and rewritten with
the aid of W. W. Turner, esq., of Washington. The grammar and
dictionary are prefaced by a brief account of the country and its inhab-
itants. The long residence of the author in this part of the interior
: of Africa has enabled him to gather more minute knowledge of its
topography, climate, and productions, and of the political, social, and
moral relations of its inhabitants than has before been obtained. He

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

lias collected interesting information as to the habits of thought and
action of the people, and their capacity for moral and intellectual
culture, which would have escaped the casual notice of the mere
traveller.

Yoruba is a country of Western Africa, situated to the east of
Dahomey, and extending from the Bight of Benin, in a northerly
direction, nearly to the Niger. It is between the countries explored
by the distinguished travellers,, Barth, on the north, and Livingstone,
on the south. The author describes it as a beautiful and fertile region,
densely inhabited by a population devoted to agricultural pursuits,
who do not dwell on the lands they cultivate, but live clustered
together in villages and towns, some of which contain from 20,000 to
70,000 inhabitants. The people are generally of a primitive, simple
and harmless character, and governed by institutions patriarchal
rather than despotic. In their appearance they resemble the Cau-
casian race, while their mental powers and general moral impulses
are considerably advanced in the scale of intelligence. They have,
indeed, already attained no inconsiderable degree of social organiza-
tion, while they have escaped some of the more depraved incidents of
an advanced civilization.

The language, which is said to be spoken by about two millions of
people, is represented by Professor Turner to be very homogeneous in
its structure, almost all of it being derived from some five hundred
primitive words. "Its articulations are sufficiently easy to imitate,
and there is a system of vocalic concords recurring through the whole,
which^ together with the multiplicity of vowels, renders it decidedly
euphonious. The great difficulty is found in the tones and accents,
which can be discriminated only by a good ear, and must be uttered
correctly to make the speaker intelligible. The Yoruba has neither
article nor adjective, properly so called, and it is almost wholly des-
titute of inflection. The verbal root remains unchanged through all
the accidents of person, mood, and tense, which are indicated by
separate pronouns and particles. The plurality of nouns is also indi-
cated by the aid of a plural pronoun. The numerals are based on the
decimal system, yet many of them are formed by subtraction instead
of addition or multiplication, as with us. Thus 15 is literally 10 -f- 5 ;
but 16 =r 20 — 4, 17 = 20 — 3, &c. Although this language is spoken
by a rude people, it abounds in abstract terms, and the missionary
finds no difficulty in expressing in it the ideas he desires to com-
municate."

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

It is believed that this work will be received by the student of
ethnology as an interesting addition to this science, and that its pub-
lication will not only facilitate the labors of the missionary, but be
productive of valuable commercial results. The country in which the
language is spoken is rich in natural and artificial productions, and
as the inhabitants are anxious to establish relations of trade with
other parts of the world, it would seem to offer a new and tempting
field to mercantile enterprise.

Under the head of publications, we may allude to the Appendix to
the Annual Report of the Eegents. Previous to 1853 this report was
in a pamphlet form, and only in one or two cases were a few extra
copies ordered. Since that date an annual volume has been presented
to Congress, of which twenty thousand extra copies have been printed.
The liberal distribution of this work has met with general approbation,
the applications to the Institution for copies have been constantly in-
creasing, and, in connexion with the Report of the Patent Office, no
document has become more popular or is better calculated to advance
the cause of knowledge among the people. The object is, as far as pos-
sible, to distribute this volume among teachers, and through them to
diffuse precise scientific knowledge to the rising generation. It is made
also the vehicle of instruction, in the line of observations, to all who
are desirous of co-operating in the investigation of the natural history
and physical geography of this country. The wide distribution of this
report has tended, more than any other means, to make known the
character of the Institution, and to awaken an interest throughout
the whole country in its prosperity.

In order to render the series complete, the first volume — that for
1853 — contained a reprint of the previous reports of the Secretary,
from which a connected history of all the operations of the Institution
from the beginning may be obtained. These volumes are illustrated
by a large number of wood cuts, which have been provided at the
expense of the Smithsonian fund. We have, however, to regret that,
from the rapidity with which Congressional documents are hurried
through the press, we have not been allowed in all cases revised copies
of the proof. We cannot, therefore, be held entirely responsible for
inaccuracies of the press any more than for the style of printing or
the quality of the paper.

It is a part of the settled policy of the Institution to appropriate
its funds, as far as the original law of organization will allow, to
such objects only as cannot as well be accomplished by other means ;
and accordingly, in several instances, the printing of papers previously

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

accepted for publication has been relinquished because it was subse-
quently found that the works could be given to the public, under
certain conditions, through other agencies. In such cases the favor-
able opinion expressed by the Institution as to the character of the
work, or the assistance rendered by the subscription on the part of the
Kegents, for a number of copies to be distributed in exchange for
other books among our foreign correspondents, has been sufficient to
induce some liberal minded parties to undertake the publication,
rather as an enterprise connected with the reputation of their estab-
lishments, than as a matter of profit. / „■.

Among the works of this class is the "Theofy~of the Motion of the
Heavenly Bodies," by the celebrated Gauss, translated by Captain C.
H. Davis, U. S. N., late superintendent of the Nautical Almanac,
which was originally accepted by us for publication, but was after-
wards relinquished to Messrs. Little & Brown, of Boston, who have
shown in this instance, as well as in others of a similar character, a
liberality which cannot be otherwise than highly appreciated by a
discerning public. This book, which is essential to the advance of
practical astronomy, was published in Latin, in Hamburg, in 1809,
and is now of difficult access, as well as of restricted use, on account
of the language in which it appeared. It gives a complete system of
formulas and processes for computing the movement of a body revolv-
ing in an ellipse, or in any otuer curve belonging to the class of conic
sections, and explains a general method of determining the orbit of a
planet or a comet from three observations of the position of the body
as seen from the earth. The essay was called for at the time it was
produced by the wants of science. The planet Ceres, discovered on
the first day of the present century by Piazzi, of Italy, had been
lost to astronomers in its passage through the portion of the heavens
illuminated by the beams of the sun, and could not be found by the
means then known, when Gauss, from a few observations of its former
place, calculated its orbit, and furnished an ephemeris by which it
was readily rediscovered. The methods employed in this determina-
tion were afterwards given in a systematic form in the work now
translated. The copies subscribed for by the Institution, on account
of exchanges, and those paid for by the Navy Department, for the
use of the computers of the Nautical Almanac, were sufficient to
secure the publication of the work, which could not have been under-
taken without these aids.

In accordance with the same policy the Institution has subscribed
for a few copies of a work on ' ' The Pleiocene Fossils of South Caro-

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

lina,' ' by M. Tuomey and F, S. Holmes. This work received the com-
mendation of some of the distinguished members of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting in Charles-
ton, in 1850, and its publication was undertaken at the risk and cost
of the authors. The actual expense, however, far exceeded their esti-
mate, and without the liberal aid of the legislature of South Carolina
they could not have escaped heavy loss, or been enabled to complete
the work in a proper style of art. To aid the same enterprise the
Institution was induced to make the subscription above mentioned for
copies to be distributed to foreign societies. We regret to state that
before the work was fully completed the science of the country was
called to mourn the loss of Professor Tuomey, of the University of
Alabama, who, during the past year, was prematurely snatched away
from his family and friends in the flower of his age. His works,
however, will remain as an inheritance to the cause of knowledge and
the best monument to his memory. We have been gratified to learn
that, at the late session of the legislature of South Carolina, a resolu-
tion was passed authorizing a continuance of the patronage of the
State to the publication of these researches, and consequently Professor
Holmes has signified his intention to publish two additional volumes
on the Eocene and the Post Pleiocene Fossils, to which the subscrip-
tion of the Institution will also be extended.

Another work, belonging to the same class, is the series of " Contri-
butions to the Natural History of the United States of America," by
Professor Louis Agassiz. It has been mentioned in a previous report
that this distinguished savan was preparing a series of j^apers to be
presented to the Smithsonian Institution, and that the plates for some
of these had been engraved. But the number of these contributions,
and the cost of their illustration, would have absorbed a larger portion
of the Smithsonian fund than could have properly been devoted to
the labors of one individual. Fortunately, however, the reputation
and popularity of Professor Agassiz have enabled his friends to i^ro-
cure subscribers for an independent work, containing the result of his
valuable investigations, in numbers unprecedented in the annals of
science of this or of any other country. In order to assist this enter-
prise in the beginning, and to relieve its own funds, the Institution
subscribed for copies, to be distributed among foreign libraries, in ex-
change for rare works of a similar character, with which to enrich its
own library.

The Institution has also facilitated the researches described in the
first two volumes of the work in question, and I may quote the

EEPORT OF THE SECEETARY. 23

following sentence containing the acknowledgment of the author for
the services which have thus been rendered him : " Above all, I must
mention the Smithsonian Institution, whose officers, in the true spirit
of its founder, have largely contributed to the advancement of my
researches by forwarding to me for examination not only all the
specimens of Testudinata collected for the museum of the Institution,
but also those brought to Washington by the naturalists of the dif-
ferent parties that have explored the western Territories, or crossed
the continent with the view of determining the best route for the
Pacific railroad. These specimens have enabled me to determine the
geographical distribution of this order of reptiles with a degree of
precision which I could not have attained without this assistance."
Besides this, the Institution caused special collections of turtles to be
made for Professor Agassiz, from those parts of the country from
which no specimens had previously been obtained.

It was originally intended, as announced in the prospectus, to issue
one volume a year, but the author found that the first volume was
insufficient to contain all the matter which he had designed to give
in it. Its publication was therefore delayed, that the whole of this
part of his general subject might be presented at once, and hence two
volumes have been issued together. The large subscription which
has been obtained has enabled the publishers to extend the original
plan, and to expend a much greater sum on the engravings than was
at first thought possible. The work will serve to increase and extend
the reputation of the illustrious author, as well as to afford a striking
example of the liberality of our country and its growing appreciation
of abstract science.

Under the head of publications, and in justice to the memory of a
distinguished naturalist, a profound scholar, and a worthy man, the
late Dr. Gerard Troost, of Tennessee, it ought to be stated in this
Eeport, that after his death, several years ago, a memoir he had pre-
pared on the organic remains known as Crinoidea^ illustrated by a
collection of specimens, was presented to the Smithsonian Institution
for publication. It was submitted to two naturalists of high reputa-
tion, and found by them to be an important addition to knowledge,
though left by its author in an unfinished condition. The gentlemen
to whom it was referred generously offered to supply the deficiencies,
and to prepare the work for the press. Their engagements, however,
have since been such as to prevent up to this time the completion of
the task which they undertook to accomplish. One of the gentlemen

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

to whom the paper was referred, Prof. James Hall, in whose posses-
sion the specimens now are, states that he had hoped long since to
put the memoir in such a form as to do justice to the memory of Dr.
Troost, and bo in accordance with the latest views of the subject. To
do this, however, required an examination of other specimens, and for
this object he had never been able to find time. At present he is
engaged in a geological report of Iowa, in which there are several
plates of Crinoids, and any which may be identical with those de-
scribed by Dr. Troost will be accredited to him. We regret exceed-
ingly this long delay in the publication of the labors of one so highly
esteemed in life and gratefully remembered in death. It has, however,
been caused by circumstances over which we had no control, and which
have given us considerable disquietude.

The new and extended series of Meteorological and Physical Tables,
which has been in course of preparation for several years, is at length
completed and ready for distribution. It forms a volume of 634 large
octavo pages, which may be divided into separate parts, each distinct
in itself. A copy of these tables will be sent to each of the meteoro-
logical observers, and it is believed that a considerable number may
be sold in this country and Europe, from which something may be
derived towards compensating the author, Prof. Guyot, for the un-
wearied labor and attention he has bestowed upon the work.

At the request of the Institution, Baron Osten Sacken, of the Eus-
sian legation, who has made a special study of Dipterous Insects has
prepared a catalogue of the previously described species of this con-
tinent, analogous to that of Melsheimer's catalogue of the Cleoptera
of the United States, which was published some years ago by this
Institution.

It frequently happens that the same animal is described by different
naturalists under different names, and there may be among the species
enumerated in this catalogue some of this character, but in the pre-
sent state of the knowledge of American Diptera the publication of a
complete synonymical catalogue is impossible. Yet a list like the one
just completed is an indispensable preparatory work for the future
study of this branch of entomology. The catalogue includes the
species inhabiting not only the North American continent in general,
but also those in Central America and in the West Indies. It also
gives the principal localitiee where each species has been found.
In a list like this, says the author, completeness is the principal
merit ; the symmetrical arrangement is but of secondary importance.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

The groups adopted by Meigen and Wiedemann are retained, avoiding
the subdivisions introduced by modern authors.

The publication of this list, we trust, will very much facilitate the
study of entomology, and it is a special object of this Institution to en-
courage individuals to devote themselves to particular subjects of re-
search. The field of nature is so extended that unless it be minutely
subdivided, and its several parts cultivated by different persons, little
progress of a definite character can be anticipated. To collect the
materials for wider generalizations_, microscopic research is necessary
in every direction, and men enthusiastically devoted to one object are
required in every branch of knowledge in order that the whole may be
perfected. It is true, before entering on an investigation of this kind,
that it is desirable for the individual to have a general knowledge of the
different branches of science, since they are all intimately connected ;
and the student can then narrow his field of view until it comes within
the scope of his mental abilities, or the means which he may have at his
disposal for its advancement. As a general rule, however, the ability
to enlarge the bounds of science can only be obtained by almost ex-
clusive devotion to a few branches.

It is scarcely possible to estimate too highly, in reference to the
happiness of the individual as well as to the promotion of knowledge,
the choice in early life of some subject to which the thoughts can be
habitually turned during moments of leisure, and to which observa-
tion may be directed during periods of recreation, relative to which
facts may be gleaned from casual reading, and during journeys of
business or of pleasure. It is well that every one should have some
favorite subject of which he has a more minute knowledge than any
of his neighbors. It is well that he should know some one thing
profoundly, in order that he may estimate by it his deficiencies in
others.

In this connexion it may be proper to remark that the association
of individuals in the same community^ each with a special and favor-
ite pursuit^ each encouraging the others, each deferring to the others,
and each an authority in his own specialty, forms an organization
alike valuable to the individual, the community, and the public gen-
erally. To induce and encourage the establishment of such associa-
tions is one of the objects of the Institution. It is suprisiog what
interest may be awakened, what amounj^ of latent talents developed,
and what dignity imparted to the pursuits of a neighborhood by a
society in which the knowledge of each becomes common property,

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and the labors of each one are stimulated by the appreciation and
applause of his fellows.

I am acquainted with no plan of adult education better calculated
to elevate the mental character of a community or to develop the
local natural history of a district than that of a well organized and
efficiently conducted association of this kind. Such establishments,
I am happy to say, are now becoming common in every part of the
United States. They have taken the place, in many cases, of the de-
bating societies, which were formerly instituted for mental improve-
ment. To the latter it might justly be objected that they tend to
promote a talent of sophistical reasoning, rather than to engender an
uncompromising love of truth. The habit of fluent speaking may
undoubtedly be cultivated at the expense of profound thought, and
however j^romotive at times of the temporary interests of the indi-
vidual, can never be supposed to tend to the permanent advancement
of the species.

Meteorology. — The system of meteorological observations under the
direction of the Institution and the Patent Office has been so repeatedly
described in previous reports that it will scarcely be necessary to give
any more at this time than an account of the present state of the work.
The system was commenced in 1849, and has since then been gradually
improving in the number of observers, character of the instruments,
and the precision with which the records are made. The Institution
has awakened a wide interest in the subject of meteorology, and has
diffused a considerable amount of information with regard to it which
could not readily be obtained through other means. The manufac-
ture of instruments, compared with standards furnished b)^ the Insti-
tution from London and Paris, has been an important means of
advancing the science. The work is still continued by James Green,
173 Grand street, New York, and during the past year an increasing
number of full sets has been purchased by observers. The Institution
has continued to distribute rain-gages, with which observations are
now made on the quantity of aqueous precipitation in nearly every
State and Territory of the Union.

We are indebted to the National Telegraph line for a series of
observations from New Orleans to New York, and as far westward
as Cincinnati, Ohio, which have been published in the '' Evening
Star," of this city. These reports have excited much interest, and
could they be extended further north, and more generally to the
westward, they would furnish important information as to the ap-

KEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 27

proacli of storms. We hope in the course of another year to make
such an arrangement with the telegraph lines as to he ahle to give
warning on the eastern coast of the approach of storms, since the
investigations which have been made at the Institution fully indicate
the fact that as a general rule the storms of our latitude pursue a
definite course.

The materials which have been collected relative to the climate of
the North American continent are as follows :

1st. A miscellaneous collection of MSS. and other tables relative to
the climate of the United States. This series will be enriched by a
reference list to all the meteorological records, which are to be found
in the extensive library of Mr. Peter Force, of this city, and other
accessible sources of information.

2d. The observations made under the direction of this Institution
since 1849.

3d. A series of observations made by Dr. Berlandier in Mexico.

4th. Observations made in the British possessions.

5th. The record of observations made by government and other
exploring expeditions.

6th. Copies of the observations made under the direction of the Sur-
geon General at the military posts.

7th. Copies of the observations made at the expense of the States
of New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Maine, and Missouri.

8th. A series of observations from Bermuda and the West Indies.

Besides these, the Institution is endeavoring to obtain, by means of
its exchanges, a full series of all observations which have been made
in foreign countries, and to form a complete meteorological library.

Complaint has been made on account of the delay in publishing
deductions from the materials which have thus been collected, but,
with the limited means of the Institution, it should be recollected that
all objects enumerated in the j^rogramme of organization cannot be
simultaneously accomplished. The reductions have been steadily pur-
sued for the last five years, and all the funds, not otherwise absolutely
required, have been devoted by the Institution to this object.

It will be a matter of astonishment to those not j^ractically ac-
quainted with the subject, to be informed as to the amount of labor
required for the reduction of the returns made to this Institution for
a single year. During 1856 the records of upwards of half a million of
separate observations, each requiring a reduction involving an arith-
metical calculation, were received at the Institution. Allowing an
average of one minute for the examination and reduction of each

28 REPORT OP THE SECRETARY.

observation, the amount of time consumed will be nearly 7,000 hours,
or, at the rate of seven hours per day, it will be 1,000 days or up-
wards of three years, or, in other words, to keep up with the reduction
of the current observations the whole available time of three expert
computers is required. This is independent of the labor expended in
the correspondence, preparation and distribution of blank forms, and
the deduction of general principles. The work has been prosecuted,
therefore, as rapidly as the means at the disposal of the Institution
would jjermit. Since the arrangement was made with the Patent
Office, from twelve to fifteen persons, many of them females, have
been almost constantly employed, under the direction of Prof. Coffin,
in bringing up the arrears and in reducing the current observations.

All the materials collected at the Institution are in the process of
being arranged and bound in accessible volumes, with proper indices,
to be used by all who may be desirous of making special investigations
on any point relative to the climate of this country.

During the past year the reductions for 1855 were printed in
pamphlet form and distributed to observers for criticism and sug-
gestions as to improvements which might be adopted in the subse-
quent publication of the entire series.

Exchanges. — The system of international exchange has been carried
on during the past year with unabated zeal, and we trust with undi-
minished good results. A large amount of scientific material has
passed through our hands in its transfer to and from societies and
individuals in this and other countries. The returns made to the
Institution during 1857 for its own publications consist of 555 vol-
umes, 1,067 parts of volumes, and 138 charts. These works embrace
most of the current volumes of scientific transactions, and are of the
highest importance as aids in original research. The number would
be very much increased if the contents of several large cases, which
were accidentally delayed until the beginning of this year, were in-
cluded.

The importance of the exchanges is not to be estimated by the com-
mercial value alone of the books received. In addition to this we
must consider the effect which it produces in bringing into immediate
communication the cultivators of literature and science in this country
with those abroad, of distributing among our societies publications of
a class, the existence of which would scarcely otherwise be known,
and of facilitating the diffusion of knowledge which, by the ordinary
modes of transmission, would not be attained, except, perhaps, in the
course of years.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

The system has now attained a great development, and increases
measurably every year. The expenses hitherto have been principally
borne by the Institution, but their amount has now become so great
as seriously to interfere with other operations, and I therefore think
it advisable that a charge be made, to the parties receiving a certain
amount of packages annually, sufficient to reimburse some of the
outlay, of the Smithsonian funds. "What would not be felt by each
one individually would, in the aggregate, materially lessen the burden
of expense connected with this part of the operations, which amounted,
in 1857, to about $3,000.

The expenses of the Smithsonian exchanges would be considerably
greater than they are but for the liberality of various transportation
companies in carrying packages free of cost. No charge on freight is
made by the United States Mail Steamship Company, the Panama
Railroad, or the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, forming the mail
line from New York to San Francisco, while the agents of the line
in these two cities, Messrs. I. W. Eaymond and A. B. Forbes, serve
the Institution in various ways. The California Express Agency
of Wells, Fargo & Co., has also acted with the greatest liberality,
and the same should be stated of the old line of Bremen and New York
steamers. None of the domestic agents of distribution — namely. Hick-
ling, Swan & Brewer, of Boston; D. Appleton& Co., New York; J. B.
Lipi^incott & Co., Philadelphia; John Russell, Charleston; B. M.
Norman, New Orleans ; Dr. Wislizenus, St. Louis ; H. W. Derby,
Cincinnati ; and Henry P. B. Jewett, of Cleveland — make any charge
for services ; and the same may also be said of Messrs. Oelrichs &
Liirman, of Baltimore.

The amount of labor involved in the exchanges is, of course, very
great, as will be readily inferred from an examination of the tables
of receipts and transmissions during the past year, given by Professor
Baird. The entries in the several record books fill over 700 pages ;
the circulars, invoices, and acknowledgments, exceed 4,300, in addi-
tion to over 600 receipts for packages. For a detailed account of all
the operations of the exchanges I would refer to the accompanying
report of Professor Baird.

Explorations, researches, d'c. — It was stated in the last report that
the magnetic instruments belonging to the Institution were given in
charge of Baron Miiller, for investigations in Mexico and Central
America. Two series of records of observations have been received,
but for nearly a year past nothing further has been heard from the
expedition. We should regret the loss of the instruments, although

30 RE POET OF THE SECRETARY.

the cost of them has been more than repaid by the services they have
rendered to science in the Arctic expedition under Dr. Kane, and in
the results which have already been obtained from them in Mexico.

The self-registering apparatus in the observatory on the Smithso-
nian grounds, established at the joint expense of the Coast Survey
and the Institution, has continued to record the variations in the
horizontal direction of the magnetic force during a considerable por-
tion of the past year. The interruptions which have taken place have
been principally caused by the impurities of the city gas, the exhala-
lations from which have interfered with the photographic process.
The records obtained, however, will furnish valuable data for study-
ing, in connexion with similar observations in other parts of the
globe, the character of the magnetic force, and to assist in determin-
ing how far the changes are merely local, or to what extent they
affect the whole earth.

Laboratory. — During the past year the laboratory has been under
the charge of Dr. E. W. Hilgard, recently appointed State geologist
of Mississippi. Among others, a series of experiments was made by
him, under direction of the Secretary, at the expense of the Navy
Department, relative to the vapor from a modification of bi-sulphuret
of carbon as a substitute for steam applied to mechanical purposes.
The result of these investigations was unfavorable to the substitution
of this material in the way proposed. Although a greater amount of
pressure is produced at the same temperature than in the case of
steam, yet the amount of work relative to the absolute quantity of
heat employed is by no means in accordance with this, the density of
the vapor and its greater specific heat require a corresponding amount
of fuel^ and when we consider the fact that the bi-sulphuret of carbon
is not a natural but a factitious substance, of which the vapor, when
combined with air, is highly explosive and extremely ofiensive on
account of its odor and the greater complexity of the engine required
for its use, its application in the place of steam would be far from
advantageous.

Another series of investigations was conducted in the laboratory
relating to the prevention of counterfeiting bank notes, particularly
by photography ; but as this was intended especially for private use,
the expenses were paid by the parties interested.

The Institution does not consider it a part of its duty to volunteer
an opinion as to the practicability of the new projects with which the
public mind is frequently agitated ; but when directly called upon by
the government or other parties of influence to pronounce a judgment

REPORT OP THE SECRETARY. 31

on any point of practical or applied science, it does not shrink from
the responsibility, but, after diligent and cautious inquiry, gives the
conclusions, whatever they may be, at which it has arrived.

Library. — Extensive alterations are in the process of being made in
the wing of the building appropriated to the library, for the better
accommodation of the bocks. The shelving has been arranged in two
stories of alcoves, thereby more than doubling the space. Each lower
alcove is separately secured by a door ; a precaution which has been
found necessary in the library of the Institution as well as in that of
Congress. It is a fact to be regretted, but which it is necessary to
mention in order to vindicate the restrictions imposed upon an indis-
criminate access to the books, that there is in some quarters a lamentable
want of honesty with regard to the use of property of a public character.
Not only are works in many cases mutilated, merely to avoid the labor
of copying a few pages, but valuable sets are sometimes broken by
actual theft.

The appropriation for the library must not alone be measured by
the sum assigned for the " cost of books ;" it must be recollected that
the library is principally increasing by means of the exchanges ; that
every year the Institution sends abroad, besides all the public docu-
ments which it can procure, some hundreds of copies of the quarto
volumes of its transactions, the marketable value of which is several
thousand dollars. It therefore ought to be distinctly understood that
the library is constantly increasing by the addition of the most valuable
series of the transactions of literary and scientific societies in all parts
of the world, and that this is at the expense of what are denominated
the active operations of the Institution. It is true the number of
books directly purchased is comparatively small, but indirectly pro-
cured in the way stated the annual addition is valuable.

Among the numerous donations received during the past year it is
of course impossible in this report to particularize more than a few
of the most important. The Academies of Science of Vienna, St.
Petersburg, and of Brussels, have all contributed largely both of their
older and more recent issues. The Eeal Sociedad Economica, of
Havana, has been particularly liberal in this respect, furnishing nearly
complete series for many years back, as have also the Horticultural
societies of Paris and Berlin. The most extensive single gift during
the year has been that of the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, in
72 volumes, and the Histoire Naturelle des Mammirfees, of Buflfon
and Daubenton, in 15 volumes, from the Herzogliche Bibliothek der

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Friedensteinsclien Sammlnngen, Gotha. The Britisli Admiralty has
contributed a full set of all the charts published by it during the year.
We may also mention, as an object of special interest of this class, a
valuable set of historical maps, presented by Justus Perthes, the
celebrated geographical publisher of Gotha, exhibiting the political
condition of Europe from the beginning of the third century down to
the time of the crusades. The limits of the several empires are ex-
hibited by different colors, and the whole are on such a scale as to
be adapted for instruction in schools or academies. To render this
interesting work more generally known in this country, it is proposed
to exhibit the maps in the reading room and to translate and print
the pamphlet of explanations for the use of the visiters to the Insti-
tution.

Among the curiosities of the library received during the past year
the most prominent is an ornamental album, presented through the
Department of State, from Miss Contaxaki, a native of the isle of
Crete. This work was designed as a contribution to the universal
exhibition at Paris in 1855, where it received a diploma for the artistic
merit displayed in its execution. The " Classical Bouquet," as it is
called, consists of illustrations of the principal monuments and places
in Greece, to which are added a few from the author's native isle of
Crete. These illustrations are accompanied by quotations from the
most illustrious Greek authors, beautifully illuminated, while many
of the pages are adorned with pressed flowers culled from the places
which the drawings represent. The book itself is a large quarto,
covered with blue velvet heavily embroidered, and lettered with silver.
It is inclosed in a case, made of olive wood of the country, about a foot
and a half square, richly carved and ornamented with appropriate
devices. This work was transmitted to the United States through
Charles C. Spence, esq., and affords a favorable specimen as well of
the present state of the arts in that country, which was the birthplace
of the true and the beautiful, as of the talents, the taste, and the un_
wearied industry of the lady who devised and principally executed it.

The library possesses an extensive collection of pamphlets, in-
cluding the separate theses of the candidates for graduation or honors
at the German universities ; also a series of the annual reports of the
public institutions and societies in this country. During the past year
these have been classified, a large number of them bound, and the
remainder arranged in pasteboard boxes, labeled and placed on the
shelves as volumes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

The binding of the books received through exchange continues to
be a large item of expense, and we have devoted the renaainder of the
appropriation for the library, not expended in the purchase of books
or for clerical service, to this object.

In relation to the books received by the copyright law, I have but
little to say in addition to what has been stated in preceding reports.
The provisions of the act are still disregarded, to a considerable extent,
by the larger publishers, and, as a general rule, works are received of
but little value in themselves and inconsistent with the character of
the library of the Institution. Though the cost of postage has been
diminished by the law of Congress authorizing the free transmission
of copyrights, yet it has by no means exempted the Institution from
a large item of expense on this account. The publishers frequently
inclose witliin the packages letters relating to the proper direction of
the certificates and other matter pertaining to the copyright, and by
a decision of the Post Office Department all such communications are
charged with letter postage. Though the sum in each case appears
insignificant, yet in the aggregate it may amount, in the course of a
year, to several hundred dollars ; and since the system from the begin-
ning has been of no real benefit to the Institution, we have addressed
a circular to each publisher who forwards a copyright and neglects to
pay the postage on the accompanying letters, apprising him of the fact.

In conclusion, I may state that though the copyright law was un-
doubtedly intended to enrich the library of the Institution, yet the
non-compliance with it of some of the principal publishers, and the
reception of a large amount of worthless matter involving expense in
its transportation and care has entirely defeated this object. The cost
of the system has been at least ten times greater than the value of the
books received ; nor is this all ; a compliance with the act has constantly
subjected the Institution to unmerited censure. We have therefore
been a loser both in funds and in the friendly feeling of an influential
portion ofthe community, and it is to be hoped that Congress will, at
its present session, essentially modify the existing law. The deposit
of a single copy of each article in the Patent Office, instead of the
three now sent to Washington, would be sufficient to secure the
rights of the author, and answer all the objects of a complete collec-
tion of this class of American publications.

Museum. — The general plan and objects of the collections which
have been assiduously formed through the agency of the Smithsonian
3s

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Institution have been given in several of the preceding reports, and it
will be sufficient, at this time, to repeat that they are intended to
exhibit the distribution and development of the plants and animals, as
well as to illustrate the geological and mineralogical character of the
North American continent. The number of specimens required for
these purposes is great, since all the varieties from every locality re-
quire attention. During the past year specimens have been collected
by ten government expeditions and six private exploration parties.
Some of the returns from these are now on the way, and will greatly
enhance the number and value of the materials before received. Ac-
cording to the statement of Professor Baird, hereto appended, the
catalogued specimens of animals at the end of the year 1857, amount-
ed to: mammals, 3,200; birds, 8,766; skeletons and skulls, 3,340;
reptiles, 239 ; fishes, 613.

During the year several persons have availed themselves of the use
of the collections and library in the prosecution of original researches^
and, as usual, several government expeditions, which have been scntout
for surveys, the construction of roads and for military purposes^ have
been provided with instructions as to the mode of collecting specimens
and observing meteorological and other natural phenomena. No oppor-
tunity of adding to our store of information, in regard to the physical
geography and natural history of the western portion of this continent,
has been suffered to pass without being improved, and I may safely
say, that since the establishment of the Institution more has been
done to ascertain and make known the character of the less inhabited
portion of our continent than all which had been previously accom-
plished in this line. The survey of routes from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Pacific has served of late to add much to our knowledge of
Central America, and during the past year the British government
has sent out a party for the exploration of the country north of the
limits of the United States and between the great lakes and the Pacific
ocean. This survey^ in connexion with that along the 49th parallel of
latitude, now in progress for determining the boundary line between
the United States and the British possessions, will add to the natural
history of the northern portion of our territory, and will furnish the
data necessary to delineate more accurately the great mountain
system which determines the climate and physical peculiarities of the
western portion of tliis continent.

SmitJison' s personal effects. — The bequest of James Smithson included
all his personal effects, and these were obtained by Hon. Eichard Kush^

REPORT OP THE SECRETARY. oO

tiie agent of the American government, tlirougli wliom tlie legacy was
procured. They were delivered by him to the Secretary of State, and
afterwards deposited in the museum of the Patent Office, where they
remained until the last year, when they were transferred to the Regents'
room in the Smithsonian building. They have been arranged for exhi-
bition in a large case of black walnut, and now form an interesting por-
tion of the collections of the Institution. They consist of a very ex-
tensive series of rare though minute specimens of mineralogy, of the
table service of plate of Smithson, and of the portable chemical and
mineralogical apparatus with which he made his investigations.
Besides the above mentioned articles, the Institution has had in its
possession for several years the library of Smithson, containing 115
volumes, and a collection of manuscripts, principally consisting of what
would appear to be the materials of a philosophical dictionary. The
whole collection taken together serves to exhibit the character of the
man, and clearly to indicate his intention as to the nature of the Insti-
tution to which he gave his name. It serves to strengthen the convic-
tion, if anything of this kind were needed, that the proper interpretation
of the will has been given by the Regents in adopting the plan which
makes active operations, the discovery of new truths, and a diffusion
of these among men, the prominent object of the establishment.

In this connexion, it may be interesting to repeat a statement made
in a former report_, that the Institution is in possession of two like-
nesses of Smithson ; one, a portrait of him while a youth, in the cos-
tume of a student at Oxford, the other a medallion, from which a steel
engraving has been executed. The first was purchased from the widow
of John Fitall, the servant of Smithson, and the other was among his
effects, and identified by a paper attached to it, on which the w^ords
" my likeness" were written in Smithson's own hand. A list of the
papers published by Smithson^ and a record of all the facts which
could be gathered in relation to him, have been made, to serve here-
after for a more definite account of his life and labors than has yet
appeared.

Gallery of Art. — During the past year this apartment of the Smith-
sonian building has been enriched by a faithful copy, in Carrara
marble, of the " Dying G-ladiator," one of the most celebrated statues
of antiquity. This copy, which is said to be the only one in marble
in existence, has been deposited here by its owner, F. W. Risque,
esq., of the District of Columbia, to whom the public of this country
is indebted for his liberality in the purchase and free exhibition of so

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

costly and interesting a specimen of art, It is by Joseph Gott, an
English sculptor of high reputation, and its faithfulness, as a repre-
sentation of the original, is vouched for by a certificate, among others,
from our lamented countryman, Thomas Crawford.

The Stanley collection of Indian portraits, which is still in the
Gallery, has, during the past year, been increased by a number of
new pictures, and continues to be an object of interest to the visitors
of the national capital. This collection, now the most extensive in
existence, of Indian portraits, ought, as we have stated in previous
reports, to be purchased by government. It is a sacred duty which this
country owes to the civilized world to collect everything relative to
the history, the manners and customs, the physical peculiarities, and,
in short, all that may tend to illustrate the character and history of
the original inhabitants of North America. The duty which Mr.
Stanley owes to his family will not permit him to retain the collection
unbroken, and unless Congress make an appropriation for its pur-
chase, he will be obliged to dispose of it in portions. Such an event
would be a lasting source of regret; and, from the interest which a
number of distinguished members of the Senate and House of Eepre-
sentatives have expressed in regard to the purchase, we doubt not
that the proposition will in due time be favorably entertained.

Lectures. — During the past season the usual number of lectures
has been given, without any diminution in the size of the audience
and the apparent interest of the public.

In connexion with this subject, we may mention, complaints have
frequently been made against the Institution, on account of the bad
cocdition of the walks leading to the building ; but it should be recol-
lected that the grounds belong to the government and are not under
the control of the Eegents. A plank walk has, however, been laid
df'wn along the principal thoroughfare and lighted, on nights of lec-
tures, at the expense of the Institution.

The Smithsonian lecture-room is found to be the most commodious
apartment in the District for public meetings, and almost constant
applications are made for its use. This is granted in all cases, pro-
vided the actual expense of lighting, heating and attendance be paid,
and the object for which it is required be consistent with the character
of the Institution, and not merely intended to advance individual
interests. The rule which excludes from the lectures any subject
connected with sectarianism, discussions in Congress and the political
questions of the day, has been strictly observed.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

The following is a list of the lectures which were delivered during
the winter of 1857-'58 :

Seven lectures hy Professor John LeConte, of the South Carolina
College, on '' The Physics of Meteorology."

One lecture by Hon. H. W. Hilliard, of Alabama, on the "Life
and Genius of Milton."

Two lectures by Dr. I. I. Hayes, of Philadelphia, on " Arctic Ex-
plorations."

One lecture by Rev. T. J. Bowen, of Yoruba, Africa, on " Central
Africa — the Country and People."

One lecture by D. K. Whitaker, esq., of Charleston, S. C, on the
'' Genius and Writings of Sir Walter Scott."

Two lectures by Professor C. C. Felton, of Harvard College, Cam-
bridge, Mass., on " Modern Greece."

Four lectures by Dr. James Wynne, of New York, on the " Dara-
tion of Life in Various Occupations."

Three lectures by Professor J. P. Espy, on " The Law of Storms."

Five lectures by Rev. J. H. Mcllvaine, of Rochester, N. Y., on
"Comparative Philology in some of its bearings upon Ethnology,
and embracing an account of the Sanscrit and Persian Arrowhead
Languages."

Three lectures by G. Gajani, on " The Catacombs, the Coliseum, and
the Vatican of Rome."

One lecture by Professor Scheie de Vere, of the University of Vir-
ginia, on " John Law and the Celebrated Mississippi Speculation."

From the foregoing "' statements we think it will be generally
acknowledged that the Institution is steadily pursuing a course of
usefulness well calculated to make the name of its founder favorably
known and the results of his bequest highly appreciated in every
part of the civilized world, that its funds are in a good condition, and
that the prospect of its future influence in the promotion of know,
ledge is even more cheering than at any period of its past history.

Respectfully submitted.

JOSEPH HENRY,

Stcretary S. I.
Washington, January, 1858.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

S.MITHSONIAN iNSTITFnON,

Washington, December 31, 1857.

Sir : I have tlie honor, herewith, to present a report, for 1857, of the
operations you have entrusted to my charge, namely, those which re-
late to the printing, to the exchanges, and to the collections of natural
history.

He.-^pectfully suomitted.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Joseph Henry, LL.D.,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

Publications.

The puhlications of the Institution for the year consist of the ninth
volume of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, embracing 484
pages of quarto text and 22 plates, and of the annual report to Con-
gress, an octavo volume of 468 pages. Considerable progress has
also been made with the printing of the tenth volume of Smithsonian
Contributions, 136 pages and five plates being finished.

The catalogue of North American Diptera, by Baron Ostensacken,
is nearly through the press and will include 112 octavo pages.

Exchanges.

The system of international exchanges so successfully prosecuted by
the Institution since its establishment has been carried on during the
year with the happiest results. A large amount of scientific material
has passed through its hands and has been promptly transmitted to
its destination. The general details of the system will be presented
hereafter.

The returns made to the Smithsonian Institution for its own dona-
tions wiU be found in the following table:

A. — Beceipt of hooks, &c., hy exchange in 1857.

Volumes — Octavo 404

Quarto 146

Folio 5

555

Parts of volumes and pamphlets —

Octavo 775

Quarto _. 255

Folio 37

1,067

Charts and maps 133

1,760

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

39

The works received embrace most of the current volumes of scientific
transactions, with some back series, and are of the highest importance
as materiaLs of scientific research.

In the followin*^ tables are exhibited the chief statistics of exchange
during both 1856 and 1857. The last annual report did not fully
cover the subject, owing to the fact that a supplementary sending was
required in January, 1857, to complete that of July, 1856, and a re-
port for 1856 could not reasonably include what was actually not per-
formed till the ensuing year. In presenting the series of tables
throughout, those of transmissions for 1856 are to be uuderstood as
embracing parcels forwarded in January 1857. This will explain the
apparent disproportion in amount for the two years, as much of what
was sent in the beginning of 1857 would otherwise not have gone until
the ensuinsr summer.

B.

Table shnoing the statistics of foreign exchanges of the Smithsonian Inslitulion in 1856.

Distributed through —

H

■g'C

1^

Zi
Co

<

•a
a

o

H

Number of principal
packages.

c.
= 1

o

1

o

3

K

O

o

Zi

S
Z

a

o

o -

x: a.

. Dr. F. Flilgcl, Leipsic.

S

5

1

6

2o

17

155

15

9

21

7

22
1:1
3
17
73
46
414
,39
29

25
7

Norway

19
29
17
193
20
15

••■"••

25

32
13
240
21
18

Russia

Holland

Total

241

391

562

656

385

1,042

42

340

10 423

2. H, Boisange, Paris.

France

79
42

d

1?0
o3

1

187
95

14 1

143
33

1

Italv

tSpuia and Portugal

1

Total

127

154

281

296 ;

176

472

13 i

126

4, 129

3. The Royal Society and H. Stevens,
Londjm.

117

231

348

i
2oO

253

513

9

94

2,914

4. Otiier channels . .

2G

'°i

36

39 j

10

49

6|

26

800

51i

716

1,227

1,251 i

835

2,076

70 1

5*i

18,27]

40

EEPOET OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

c.

Table showing the statistics of foreign exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution in 1857.

X

,

^

-a

^

'

fi

£

-'^

1

^ "C

3

J

0)

Distributed through —

H -

!_ C

c

■3

•3

CJ

1

y, ^

-4

■1 =
c

S p

o

M °-

"a

e :

5

bo

c

o

£

<

Ch

z

z

h

Z c

q

is

1. Dr. F. Fliisel, Leipsic.

Sweden o

9

15

oo

23 .

Norway ....

5

4

10

/

Iceland

6
25

10
20

12
47

16
37

Kussia

Holland

17
142
15

9

160
20

32
29.S

28

12 .
232

26 .

Switzerland...,

7

16

18

29 .

Total...

227

254

481

465

382

847

19

183

6,928

2. H. Bossan^e, Paris.

69
32

63
24

114
51

77 .

Italy

32

5

2

10
3

Portugal

1

1 .

TotaJ

108

88

195

178

110

288

6

63

2,410

3. 7%e Royal Society and H. Stevens,

London.

Great Britain and Ireland

121

48

108

229

239

158

390

10

118

3,910

10

59

90

10

100

5

20

1,000

Grand total

505

460

955

965

650

1,625

40

384

11,248

SEPOET OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

41

D. — Packages received hy the 8 mWisonian Institution for foreign dis-
trihidioti in 1856 and 1857.

No. of packages

Albany, N. Y.—

New York State Agricultural Society

New York State Medical Society .

Prof. James Hall ^

Baltimore, Md. —

Philip R. Uhler

Baton Rouge, La. —

Institution for Mutes and Blind

Boston, Mass. —

American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Boston Society of Natural History

Historic-Genealogical Society

Prison Discipline Society

Dr. Warren

B. Homer Di.Kon

"W. H. Dixon

Ed. Jarvis

Ed. Tuckerman

W. H. Prescott

Heirs of Amos Binney, M. D

Cambridge, Mass. —

American Association for Advancement of Science.

Cambridge Observatory

J. D. Kuukle

Prof. Asa Gray

Prof D. Treadwell

Charleston, S. C —

Dr H. W. Riivenel

Chicago, III —

Col. J. D. Graham.U. S. A

Cincinnati, Ohio —

M. L. Knapp, M. D

D. Vaugban

Columbus, Ohio —

Ohio State Board of Agriculture

Frankfort, Ky. —

Geological Survey of Kentucky

Georgetovm, D. C. —

Georgetown College

Granada, Nicaragua —

President Ei vas

Hartford, Conn. —

Hon. Henry Barnard

Mr. Potter

Lansing, Mich. —

Michigan State Agricultural Socictj-

Lebanon, Tenn. —

Prof. Safford

Lowell, Mass. —

James B. Francis -

Madison, Wis. —

Wisconsin State Agricultural Society _

Historical Society of Wisconsin

Neiv Brun.^uirk, N. J. —

Prof. Geo H. Cook

1856.
5
(;

8

18

392

65

1

32

5

28

50

1

200

24

24

100

283

22

50

IG

42

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECEETARY.
D — Continued.

_Vew Haven, Co7in. —

Americau Journal of Science

American Oriental Society _ ._

Prof. D. Olmsted

I\^ew York —

American Geographical and Statistical Society.

New York Lyceum of Natural History

Prof. W. Gibbs

Philadelphia, Pa. —

American Philosophical Society

Academy of Natural Sciences

Central High School of Pliiladelphia

Historical Society of Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania Institute for the Blind

Philadelphia Library Company

Dr. Horner, U. S. N

Isaac Lea

Dr. Jo.S(!ph Leidy

Dr. J. A. Meigs

Providence, R. I —

State of Rhode Island

St. Louis, Mo —

St. Louis Academy of Science ..

Dr. B. F. Shumard...

San Francixo, Cal —

California Academy of Natural Sciences

Santiago, Chile —

University of Chile

Savannah, Ga —

Dr. Jos. Jones

Toronto, Canada —

Canadian Institute

Washington, D. C. —

U. S. Patent Office

Ordnance Bureau

U S Coast Survey

National Observatory.

Light- House Board

Secretary of War ..„..

Surgeon General ,.

Major W. H. Emory, U. S. A

W. P. Blake

Dr. J. S. Newberry

Lieut. J. C. Ives, U. S. A

Lieut. G. K. Warren, U. S. A

Lieut. J. M. Gilliss, U. S. N ,

Wm. Stimpson

J. C. G. Kennedy

W. J. Ilhees ,

Miscellaneous ,

No. of packages.

1856.
48

10

8(j

42

300

100

4

45

10

100

171

134

12

50

140

50

250
46
67

120

Total

Supposing each parcel to contain an average of one and a half pieces,
the number of these would be ..

Add of Smithsonian volumes and memoirs, about

Add volumes of public documents obtained and distributed, about

Approximate total of volumes and pamphlets sent abroad by the
Institution „ _

60
20
18
20

133
3,510

5,265
2,500
1,500

9.265

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

43

E. — Addressed packages received^ hi/ the Smithsonian Institidion from
Europe, for distribution in America.

Xo. of packages.

Albany, N. Y. —

New York State Library

Bobion, Mass. —

American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Boston Society of Natural History

Bowditcli Library _

Cavihridge, 3Iass. —

American Association for Advancement of Science.

Cambridge Astronomical Journal

Cambridge Observatory

Harvard College -

Charleston, S. C. —

Literary and Philosophical Society -

Colum'us, Ohio —

Ohio State Board of Agriculture

Georgetoicii, D. 0. —

Georgetown College

Lansing, Mich.^

Michigan State Agricultural Society -.-.

Madison, Wis —

Wisconsin State Agricultural Socitity

Neiv Haven, Conn. —

American Journal of Science

American Oriental Society -

New Orleans, La. —

New Orleans Academy of Natural Sciences

New York —

American Geographical and Statistical Society

New York Lyceum of Natural History

Philadelphia, Pa. —

American Philosophical Society

Academy of Natural Sciences -

Franklin Institute

San Francisco, Cal. —

California Academy of Natural Sciences

Santiago, dale —

University of Chile —

Observatory

Washington, D. C. —

U. S. Patent Office

National Institute

Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography

U. S. Coast Survey ".

National Observatory

Surgeon General -

United States Agricultural Society

Library of Congress

Worcester, Mass —

American Antiquarian Society

Miscellaneous addresses, institutions

Individuals

Total

1856.

42

30

1

2-i

9

22

2

14

3

8

22

5
1

12

24

24

74

67
9

3
1

27

23

1

2

17

1

437
318

1,245

In addition to the above, 142 volumes were received from five European institutions for
distribution to such addresses as might be gekcted by the Smithsonian.

44 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

DETAILS OF THE SYSTEM OF EXCHANGES.

As the system of international exchange now carried on by the
Smithsonian Institution has attained a very great development, a
sketch of the mode of conducting it may not be amiss at the present
time. The subject may be considered under two heads, one relating
to the parcels received from parties in the United States for transmis-
sion to foreign countries, and the other having reference to receipts
from abroad for institutions and individuals in America. In con-
nexion with this subject, it may be stated that a large room in the
Institution, measuring 70 feet by about 25, is devoted to the depart-
ment of exchanges, and, besides containing the stock on hand of
Smithsonian publications and of miscellaneous documents, is fitted up
on one side with a series of large binns, each one devoted to a partic-
ular portion of the world, and appropriately labelled. The floor of
the room is occupied by a series of long tables, five feet wide, on which
parcels are made up or unpacked. Printed addresses are arranged in
small pigeon holes, and include nearly all the correspondents of the
Institution, domestic and foreign, amounting, at the present time, to
nearly one thousand names.

Operations connected toith ty-ansmissions from the United States. — The
transmissions of the Smithsonian Institution are regulated, in a mea-
sure, by the time when the annual volume of Smithsonian Contribu-
tions is completed. One or two months before this time, a circular
letter of advice is transmitted to all the institutions and individuals
in the United States and the Canadas known or supposed to have
a desire to avail themselves of the facilities of the Smithsonian sys-
tem of exchanges, and the conditions stated upon which parcels will
be received. If any society or individual have published a work
likely to be of interest to the scientific and literary world abroad, and
no indication is given of an intention to distribute copies, a special
application is made for them, and no effort left untried to secure to
the foreign investigators the benefit of all original and useful Ameri-
can material. Such appeals are generally responded to very favor-
ably, and very many })ublications of the different bureaus of the gov-
ernment, of States, and of State agricultural and historical institutions,
of societies, and of individuals, have thus been obtained.

In nearly all cases, in the first instance, at least, the Smithsonian
Institution is called on to furnish lists of suitable foreign recipients
for the publications just referred to, or the volumes are sent in bulk,
to be addressed here. After the first sending, the exchange is usually
more directly between the parties corresponding, the Institution pre-
ferring to have the parcels properly addressed before forwarding to
Washington. In all cases great care is taken to secure the credit of
the donation to the proper party, and to prevent it being supposed to
come directly from the Institution.

To facilitate the selection of suitable recipients for donations or ex-
changes, the Institution publishes once in two years a carefully pre-
pared list of foreign institutions for general distribution. The last
one issued contains over 570 names, but manuscript additions bring

EEPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 45

the number up to about 700. The list of individuals is nearly as large
as that of institutions.

To facilitate the selection of recipients for particular works, of which
a limited number of copies only may be available for distribution,
classified lists of institutions are kept, as of academies of science gene-
rally, and of societies devoted to special subjects, as geography, ge-
ology, zoology, botany, ethnology, statistics, &c., and these are ar-
ranged from IS^o. 1 upwards, in the order of relative importance, or of
equable distribution among the centres of learning; thus six copies of
any work on hand would be assigned to the first six names on the list
of institutions most interested in it.

The parcels, as received irom the different portions of North Amer-
ica, are placed, after being addressed, (if not so alread}^) in their ap-
propriate receptacles, and the list entered specifically in a record book.
To facilitate such entry, a detailed invoice of each transmission is re-
quired, and the failure to furnish it puts the institution to the great
trouble of making it from the books themselves.

When the parcels have all been received, a list of the different do-
nors is printed, together with the titles of the various works which
the institution has for distribution at the time. On the da.y assigned
for commencing the labor of making up the packages, the binns are
emptied successively, the contents arranged carefully on the counters,
so as to bring everything for one address together, the Smithsonian
donations are added, and each particular piece is checked off in the
printed blank just referred to. This rough invoice is numbered and
handed to the packers, who make up the volumes into one or more
bundles, and mark them with the number of the invoice, by which
means they are easily identified and labelled. When parcels or books
are addressed to individuals, these are usually inclosed in the bundles
of the societies to which they belong, the number and addresses of
such sub-packages being marked on the rough invoices. A correct copy
is made of these lists, and forwarded by mail or otherwise to the par-
ties, in which is also stated the nature and time of the transmission.
These invoices are finally posted, to the debit of the party addressed,
in a large ledger, which shows what each has had, and what return
has been made to the Institution, The record of each package is,
therelbre, made four times.

In sending the invoice of the package for each address, a circular
is added explaining the objects of the transmission, and the conditions
on which the exchange will be continued.

The time occupied in invoicing and making up the packages varies
with the occasion, although a month is usually required to finish the
work. After the bundles are all made up, those tor each agent are
brought into one heap, and they are then packed into boxes, a check
list being kept of the numbers placed in each box.

There are three principal agents in Europe who have charge of the
Smithsonian exchanges in their respective regions : Dr. Felix Fltigel,
resident in Leipsic, has charge of continental Europe, with the ex-
ception of France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, (which are supplied by
Hector J3ossange, of Paris,) and of Greece and Turkey. Henry
Stevens, of London, is agent for Great Britain and Ireland. Greece

46 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SKCRETARY.

and Turkey are usually readied through the American minister at
Constantinople and the consul at Alexandria. Most of the points in
Asia and Africa are supplied through the Presbyterian Board of For-
eign ^Missions in New York, and the American Board in Boston,
Australia through Mr. I. W. Kaymond, of New York, and South
America through a variety of channels.

The boxes for the agents above mentioned, containing the different
parcels, are then sent from the Institution ; those for Dr. Fliigel being
shipped from Baltimore, through Oelrichs & Liirman, direct to Bre-
men, thence by railroad to Leipsic. The boxes for Messrs. Bossange
and Stevens are shipped by packet from New York.

The governments of Europe to whose ports shipments are made by
the Institution have all authorized their admission free of duty, on
filing an invoice with the customs authorities some time in advance of
the arrival of the boxes. After being received by the agents, these
boxes are unpacked, and the different parcels distributed to their desti-
nation through the channels selected by the intended recipients, accom-
panied by circular advices from the agents. In Germany the parcels
are usually transmitted through the booksellers of Leipsic, as they
may have occasion to send to correspondents in the various towns.

Exchanijes from foreign countries for America. — The system of ope-
rations in this case is similar in principle to that just described,
although the steps take place in inverse order. The packages are sent
to the agents of the Institution, who inclose them in boxes, which are
forwarded monthly, or oftener. On being received in Washington
they are unpacked, an entry made of their contents, and the parcels
placed temporarily in the binns assigned to their respective addresses.
They are then assorted, those for each party made up into one bundle,
and thus forwarded, by express or otherwise, accomj)anied by a blank
receipt, which is to be signed and returned.

MUSEUM.

A. — Increase of the Museum.

The collections in natural history received during the year 1857
have been of great extent, and embrace many important additions to
the material on hand for extending the knowledge of the animal,
vegetable, and mineral productions of America. The specimens
received have been from the usual variety of sources ; the most im-
portant being, as heretofore, those brought in by the different govern-
ment expeditions, as follows :

1. Survey of the northwestern boundary line, Archibald Campbell,
esq., commissioner. — The expedition left in April, 18H7, for Puget
Sound, and during the year had its main camp for the most part at
Simeahmoo bay, near the mouth of Frazer's river. Large collections
of the animals and plants of the Sound have been made by Dr. Ken-
nerly, surgeon and naturalist of the expedition ; and of minerals and
fossils by Mr. George Gibbs, the geologist.

HEPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY, 47

2. Exploration of the Black Hills and Loup Fork, under Lieutenant
G. K. Warren, U. S. A — Lieutenant Warren made his third visit to
the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone region, accompanied, as on pre-
vious expeditions, by Dr. Hayden as geologist and naturalist. Very
large collections in all branches of natural history were made and
brought home, tending, in great measure, to complete our knowledge
of the distribution of species over the high plains of the west.

3. Wagcn road to Bridger' s Pass, under Lieutenant F. T. Bryan, U.
S. A. — During his second year's work on this road to Utah Territory,
Lieutenant Bryan, as before, was accompanied by Mr. Wm. S. Wood,
who continued and completed the collections of the preceding year, in
securing many species not previously obtained. Dr. Wm. A. Ham-
mond, U. S. A., who accompanied the party as surgeon, also made a
separate and independent collection of much interest, not only on the
route, but while stationed at Fort Eiley. In this he was for a time
assisted by Mr. J. Xantns de Vesey.

4. Wagon road to California via South Pass, under Wm. 31. 3Ia-
graio. — This party, accompanied by Dr. James G. Cooper, as surgeon
and naturalist, aided by C. Drexler, reached Fort Laramie during the
autumn. The collections in all departments were large and import-
ant, and were accompanied by copious notes on the species observed.

5. Survey of the southern boundary of Kansas, under Lieutenant
Colonel Johnston, U. S. A. — A valuable collection of specimens in
alcohol was made during the survey by J. H. Clark, esq., astron-
omer of the expedition.

6. Survey of the Isthmus of Darien, under Lieutenant N. 3Iichler, U.
S. A. — This expedition, accompanied by Mr. A. Schott and Messrs.
Wm. S. and Charles Wood, sailed for Carthagena in October, pro-
ceeding thence to the isthmus. While at Carthagena a collection of
birds and shells was made and sent to Washington, and others are on
their way.

Among government expeditions fitted out in 1857, but from which
no collections have yet been received, are the following :

7. Wagon road route to California via El Paso and Fort Yuma,
under Colonel Leech. — This expedition was accompanied by Dr. McCay
and Mr. Hays, both of whom were prepared to make collections in
natural history.

8. Exploration of the La Plata and its tributaries, under Captain
Page, V. S.N. — Christopher Wood doing duty as zoological collector.

9. Artesian well exp)edition, on the Llano Estacado, under Captain
Pope, U. S. A. — This is the third expedition to the sterile regions of
western Texas, conducted by Captain Pope.

48 EEPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

10. Exploration of the Colorado river, under Lieutenant J. G. Ives.—
This expedition started in September, accompanied by Dr. J. S.
Newberry, surgeon and geologist, and H. B. MoUhausen, artist and
zoologist. Stveral collections made by these gentlemen about San
Diego are on their way_, but have not yet been received.

The more important private explorations from which specimens
have been received are as follows :

11. Region around Fort Tejon, California, hy J. Xantus de Vesey. —
The collections made by Mr. Vesey will compare favorably with any
obtained under government auspices, and embrace complete series of
the animals and plants of the vicinity of Fort Tejon, as far as met
with ; they also include quite a number of new species.

12. Southern Illinois and Northern Red river, hy R. Kennicott. — Mr.
Kennicott, under a commission from the Northwestern University, at
Evanston, Illinois, to procure for its museum a collection of specimens
of the natural history of the northwest, visited southern Illinois in the
spring, and after exploring the vicinity of Cairo and New Madrid
for several months, proceeded to the Red river of the North, within
the British possessions, and nearly to Lake Winipeg. The collections
made cover all branches of zoology.

13. Coast of Florida, hy G. Wurdemann, United States Coast
Survey. — Mr. Wurdemann's collections were in continuation of those
of previous years, and included a great variety of species, among them
several birds new to the fauna of the United States.

14. Red river of the North and of Nelson's river, U. B. Territory,
hy Donald Gunn, esq. — A large collection of birds and mammals made
in these regions by Mr. Gunn, assisted by Mr. John Isbister, have
added much to our knowledge of the distribution of species.

A collection of about 150 species of birds of Arctic America, Mexico,
and Guatemala, presented by John Gould^ esq., of London, has fur-
nished very important data for comparison and determination of species
of the United States.

Of the numerous ether collections made it is impossible to give an
account here. The detailed list of contributions and donations will,
however, furnish additional information on the subject.

In conclusion it may be proper to state, that of the government expe-
ditions mentioned above, that under Mr. Campbell was organized by
the State Department ; those under Lieutenant Warren, Lieutenant
Bryan, Colonel Johnston, Captain Pope, and Lieutenant Ives, by the
War Department ; those under Mr. Magraw and Mr. Leech, by the De-
partment of the Interior ; and those under Captain Page and Lieu-
tenant Michler, by the Navy Department.

In the reception of collections from the California coast, the Institu-
tion is under great obligations to the California Mail Steamship
Line, composed of the United States Mail Steamship Company, the

REPORT OP ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

49

Panama Railroad Company, and the Pacific Steamship Company, as
also to Messrs. Wells, Fargo, Co., for free transportation of very many
boxes and packages. The expense of what has been thus received, if
charged for at the usual rate, would have been entirely beyond the
means of the Institution, and if in an unprecedentedly short time our
knowledge of the natural history of California has been carried to a
point fully equal to that of any of the older States_, it is unquestionably
owing in very great measure to the liberality of the companies above
mentioned in so generously seconding the efforts of the Institution.

The folloioing table exhibits the additions made to the record books of the
museum in 1857, in continuation of previous years:

1851.

1852.

1853.

1854.

1855.

1856.

1857.

Mammals .. .

None.

114

198

351
4, 353
1,275

1,200
4,425
2,050

2,046

5, 855

3,060

106

155

3 200

Birds

8 766

Skeletons and skulls. -
Reptiles .-..-■ - ..

911

1,074

1,190

3,340
239

Fishes

613

Present condition of the museum.

The remarks in the last annual report of the Institution in relation
to the richness and extent of its collections are strengthened by the
additions of the past year, and they are confidently believed to be
beyond competition in the field of American zoology. The precise
statistics cannot now be given for the different classes and orders, as
the cataloguing is not yet completed. In one department, however,
some idea of the facts may be realized by the statement, that on the
first of July, 1857, the Institution possessed —

Species.

Of skins or alcoholic specimens of North American mammals 20.'>

Of skins or alcoholic specimens of South American mammals 18

Of skins or alcoholic specimens of European mammals 60

283

Of skulls or skeletons of North American mammals 221

Of skulls or skeletons of South American mammals 17

Of skulls or skeletons of European mammals 48

2S6

This was entirely exclusive of Cetacea, Pinnipedia, Cheiroptera and
Quadrumana, of which there were many species. Since the first of
July, the number of species of all orders has received a large increase.
The species of North American mammals in the museum of the In-
stitution, not mentioned in the great work of Audubon and Bachman,
exceeds 80. Of birds, the North American species are believed to ex-
ceed 600 ; of reptiles, 400 ; of fishes, probably 800 or more. As all
these classes are in process of elaboration, accurate statistics can
probably be presented in the next report.

4 s

50 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Work done in the museum.

The systematic registration of the Smithsonian collections has been
carried on as rapidly as other duties would admit. The number of
species labeled and entered during the year amounted to 5,271 ; most
of them in three dijS'erent series of records, making nearly 15,000 entries.
It may be proper to state that all collections, as received, are entered in
a general record book, of which the alphabetical list of donations ap-
pended to this report is a trau script. The different specimens are
next labeled and then entered on the record for the class, or particular
order, and from this posted in a ledger consisting of separate sheets,
one for each species, systematically arranged, and each sheet contain-
ing an enumeration of all the specimens of its species, with the lo-
calities, sex, date, measurements and other memoranda, making the
third time of writing out the name and statistics. In this way not
only can information be obtained of the number of species of each class
or order, but also of the separate specimens, with the locality and gen-
eral character of each one. The posting up is complete for the mam-
mals, birds, and osteological specimens, and well under way for the
reptiles and fishes, and some orders of invertebrates.

During the past year the general report on the mammals of the
Smithsonian collection has been completed and printed, forming volume
VIII of the Report of the Pacific Railroad Survey. That on the birds
is far advanced, and will be finished in the course of the ensuing
year, which will also, it is hoped^ witness the completion of reports
on the reptiles and fishes.

Distribution and use of the Smithsonian collections.

As in previous years, the Smithsonian specimens have been freely
used by students and investigators in natural history, in preparation
of Monographs and other researches. Duplicates have also been dis-
tributed to a considerable extent, and as the collections become better
arranged and other circumstances allow, it is hoped to make such
distribution on a very extensive scale.

List of Donations during the year 1857.

C. Bellmann. — Fishes, &c., in alcohol, from Mississippi.

J. and A. Brakeley. — Fresh deer and otter from Virginia ; jar of birds,
mammals and reptiles from the AUeghenies of Virginia.

J. Mason Broiun. — Cast of the skull of Daniel Boone, taken previous
to the re-interment of his remains.

Lieutenant F. T. Bryan, U. S. A. — Three boxes of zoological spe-
cimens collected by William S. Wood on the wagon-road expedition
from Fort Riley to Bridger's Pass.

Archibald Campbell. — One box of dried skins, and one chest of alco-
holic specimens collected on Puget Sound by Dr. Kennerly, on the
northwest boundary survey.

J. H. Clark. — Chest with two cans filled with reptiles, fishes and

KEPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETAEY. 51

mammals in alcohol ; specimens of salt from the salt plains of the
Pewsa, on the southern boundary of Kansas.
Mr. Cook. — Copper ores from Arizona.

Dr. J. G. Cooper. — Collections made near Fort Laramie, and thence
to Independence ; four bottles of Salamanders from New Jersey ; one
hundred skins of birds from California and Washington Territory.
L. Coulon. — Box of Swiss mammals.

Dr. S. Wylie Craiuford, U. S. A. — Thirty-two jars of reptiles and
mammals from Texas and New Mexico.

Benjamin Cross. — Golden eagle in the flesh (length 36|- inches ;
extent, 86 inches ; wing, 25 inches.)

J. P. Cunningham. — Box of Kaolin earth from Virginia.
John Day. — Snake from Virginia.

T. C. Downie. — Coluber couperi q,u^ Geomys pinetis , in alcohol, from
Georgia.

C. Drexler. — Skins of six birds and three mammals from near Phil-
adelphia.

Dr. J. Evans. — Ten boxes and one bundle of collections of geological
survey of Oregon ; skins and skull of Felis concolor (panther ;) six
skulls of Flathead Indians, from Oregon.

James Fairie. — 25 skins of Lepus aquaticus (marsh hare) and Sciurus
ludovicianus (Fox squirrel;) birds, reptiles in alcohol, from Louisiana.
A. B. Forbes. — Viviparous fish {Ennichthys megalops) from Cal-
ifornia.

Professor C. G. Forshey. — Cast skin of Scotophis, and skin of mouse,
from Texas ; specimens of supposed equine fossil foot-marks ; jar of
alcoholic specimens ; skins of serpents ; dried plants ; skin of Ocelot
and of Raccoons from Fayette county, Texas.

W. H. Gantt, 31. D. — Infusorial earth from Texas.
0. E. Garrison. — Six packages Infusorial earth ; skins of Putorius
richardsonii and Spermophilus V6-lineatus from Minnesota.

Dr. W. Gesner. — Jar of Geomys pinetis and Arvicola ; mammals
and reptiles in alcohol ; two jars of mammals from Georgia.

George Gihhs. — Box and barrel containing skeleton of large shark,
from Port Townsend, W. T. ; keg of fishes, from Puget Sound; keg
of fishes from Columbia river.

Dr. J. B. Gilpin. — Skins of mammals from Nova Scotia ; fifteen
skins of Putorius and Sciurus from Labrador and Nova Scotia ; jar
with 12 mammals, in alcohol, from Nova Scotia.

W. B. Goodman. — Diatomaceous earth from Anne Arundel county,
Maryland.

John Gould. — 160 skins of birds of Mexico and Guatemala ; skins
of humming birds, {Gampylopterus dslattrii, Trochilus heteropogon and
EriojMS luciani;) skins of Apternus hirsutus and arcticus.

Donald Gunn. — Skins of mammals and birds ; skeletons ; speci-
mens in alcohol from Red river. Skeletons of male and female
wolverine from Red river, H. B. T.

Dr. W. A. Hammond, U. S. A. — Box of skins of birds and mam-
mals from Kansas. Chest and two cans of zoological specimens
collected during Lieut. Bryan's wagon-road expedition to Bridger's
Pass.

52 EEPOST OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Dr. W. A. Hammond and J. X. de Vesey. — Skins of twentj-four
birds and of two prairie wolves from Kansas.

Dr. E. W. Harker. — Skin of Salamander {Geomys pinetis ?) from
Georgia.

F. V. Hayden. — Six boxes of fossils collected in the Upper Mis-
souri prior to 1856.

C. J. Heistand. — Specimens in alcohol of squirrels, moles, &c.,
from Pennsylvania.

Dr. E. W. Hilgard. — Specimen of Carocolla from Spain.

John S. Hiitel. — Human skulls and bones encrusted in stalagmite,
from a cave in Calaveras county, Cal.

Col. Hoffman, U. S. A. — Concretions from Cannon-Bail river, Ne-
braska.

B. A. Hoopes. — Can of Menohranchus and small mammals from
Lake Superior.

Bohert Hoivell. — Two cans of mammals, in alcohol, from Tioga
county, N. Y.

Lieut. J. C. Ives, U. S. A. — Fossil DendrecMnus excentricAis, Point
Lobas, Cal. ; miscellaneous fossils from California ; fossils from
Gatun, N. G. — all collected by Dr. J. S. Newberry.

Dr. R TV. Jeffrey, U. S. i^.— Collection of fishes of Norfolk.

Col. E. B. Jewett. — Keptiles from Texas.

Dr. C. B. Kennerly. — Jar of mammals in alcohol, and skins of
SduriLS cinereun, from Clark county, Va.

IloU. Kennicott. — Six boxes zoological collections made in southern
Illinois, and in Minnesota to Lake Winipeg. (Deposited.) Gopher
{Geomys hursarius) from Illinois ; thirty skins of Arvicola and Sorex
from Illinois ; two living squirrels, [Sciiirus ludovicianus.)

Major Jno. Leconte. — Astacus laiimanus from Georgia.

J. MacMinn. — Skins of five mammals from Pennsylvania.

Wm. M. Mograiu. — Box of skins of birds and mammals ; plants
from Independence; three boxes zoological collections, plants, &c.,
gathered between Fort Leavenworth and Fort Laramie during the
South Pass wagon-road expedition. Collected by Dr. J. G. Cooper.

Geo. P. Marsh. — Minerals from Europe.

C. C. Martin. — Keg ot reptiles, fish and mammals, from Pennsyl-
vania and New York.

W. 3Iassenburn. — Collections of serpents and Crustacea from Florida.

Maximilian Prinz Von Wied. — Wild boar {Sus scrofa) from Ger-
many, and skins of chamois (Capella rupricapra) and of female ibex
{Capra ibex) from Mont Blanc.

Dr. E. Michener. — Mounted original of Emheriza townsendii. (De-
posited.)

D. Miller, jr. — Thirty small mammals, in alcohol, from Pennsyl-
vania.

Boht. 0. Milton. — Box of fossils from Michigan.
H. B. MOllhausen. — Skin of head and skull, with horns, of Eu-
ropean stag, {Gervus elaphus.)

W. E. Moore. — Skins of monkeys from Bolivia

Henry Moores. — Star fishes from California. (Deposited.)

REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 53

H. 31. Neisler. — Shells, reptiles, fishes, &c., in alcohol, from
Georgia.

Br. J. S. Newberry. — Box of shells, Acapulco ; specimens of coals
from Ohio.

Neiu Orleans Academy of Sciences. — Skin of pouched rat (Geomys
pinetis) from Florida.

B. 31. Norman. — Three living turtles from New Orleans, {Emy
mohilensis f)

B. F. Odell. — Mammals and reptiles from near Lake Winnibigosh-
ish, Minnesota.

John Oliphant. — Falco sparverius, in flesh, from Maryland.

Capt. T. J. Page, U. S. N — Two packages of mate and six bottles
of water from the Rio Negro and Mato Grosso.

Br. B. TV. C. Peters. — Skins, birds, and mammals ; reptiles and
fishes, in alcohol, from New Mexico.

Thos. 31. Pe;e?-s.— Bottle of reptiles ; skin of Ahastor erythrogram-
mus from Alabama.

Prof. Poey. — Two living Emys decussata ; living boa or maja,
{Epicrates angvlifer ;) collection of reptiles, in alcohol, from Cuba.

J. P. Postell. — Two living Gophers, {Testudo polyphemus ;) skull
of Geomys pinetis ; box of shells, and other invertebrata, from Georgia.

John Potts. — Skins of Bassaris astuta, Putoriusfrenatus and Bidel-
phys calif ornica, from the city of Mexico.

Francis B. Bay. — Bottle containing Ophiholus eximius from Mis-
souri.

E. Raymond. — Fossil wood from Neuse river, North Carolina.

J. W. Baymond. — Skin of white raccoon from North Carolina, and
of Bassaris astuta from California.

Peter Beid. — Fresh water sponge, in alcohol, from near Lake
Cham plain.

Bev. Jos. Boivell. — Monkeys and other mammals^ fishes, &c., in
alcohol.

H. de Saussure. — Four bats, Sorex alpinus, 3Iyoxusglis, 3Ius sylvati-
cus, and musculus, and Arvicola nivalis from the St. Gothard, Switzer-
land ; other small mammals of Switzerland.

S. H. Scudder. — Can of mammals, in alcohol ; box of insects from
Massachusetts.

Lieut. Semmes, U. S. N. — Syenite from North Greenland.

J. D. Sergeant. — Jar of mammals from Pennsylvania.

James Shoemaker. — Snakes and fishes from Roanoke county, Va.

Col. Wm. B. Slaughter. — Peat from Wisconsin.

J. Stauffer. — Can of mammals, in alcohol, from Pennsylvania.

J. J. Steenstrnp, Director of Zoological Museum, Copenhagen. — Six
jars of invertebrates from Greenland

J. E. Sternberg . — Four turtles ; two boxes of shells, and of reptiles
and invertebrates, in alcohol ; box of living plants from Isthmus of
Panama.

William Stimpson. — Two kegs and numerous jars of marine inver-
tebrates and fishes from Massachusetts ; living marine animals for
aquarium.

Dr. George Suckley .—^nxiiQY^' skin of elk and of mountain goat,

54 REPORT OF ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Aplocerus montanus, from Washington Territory; box of birds from
California ; skins of mammals, birds ; fishes^ shells, minerals, and
Indian relics, from Washington Territory ; box with skins of mam-
mals and birds ; plants, &c., from Steilacoom ; box of birds, shells,
&c., Port Townsend.

A. S. Taylor. — Jar of vertebrates and crabs from California ; Cali-
fornia minerals.

il/r. Tufts. — Living actinia and other marine animals for aquarium.

Colonel A. Vaughan. — Skins of Vespertilio noctivagans and noveho-
racensis from Yellowstone river.

./. X de Vesey and Dr. W. A. Hammond, U. S. A. — Skins of birds
and mammals from Kansas.

Dr. D. S. Wall, U. S. A.— Skull of Indian and fragments of pot-
tery from a mound near Fort Capron, Florida ; skins of birds ; skin
of manatee, or sea-cow, and (y£ Lynx ; also two birds from Florida.

William D. Wallach. — Copper ores and native copper from Bay-
field, Wisconsin.

Robert B. Waller. — Bottle of Cyprinodonts from Alabama.

Lieutenant G. IC. Warren. — Two boxes fossils from Blackbird Hill,
collected by Dr. F. V. Hayden ; collections made by Dr. F. V. Hay-
den during the exploration of the Black hills in 1857, consisting of 5
boxes zoological specimens ; 21 boxes fossils and plants, &c.

C. W. Welch. — Troupial [Lcterus vulgaris) from Laguayra.

D. Welch. — Menohranclius maculatus from Lake Champlain.
Samuel Wheat. — Living black snake (Scotophis allegheniensis) from

Ohio.

3Ir. Wheeler. — Storeria dekayi from Washington.

Thomas Whelpley — Fossils from Michigan.

Dr. D. D. Whil.ehurst. — Box of specimens and cask of fishes, &c.,
in alcohol, from Gulf of Mexico; specimens of fishes (crustacea) from
Tortugas.

Dr. S. W. Wilson. — Four living alligators from Georgia ; skeleton
and skins of otter and deer ; skins of Lejpus palustris ; 24 small mam-
mals, in alcohol, from Georgia.

Dr. G. F. Winsloio. — Box of lavas from Sandwich Islands ; fossil
bones from California. (Deposited.)

W. 8. Wood. — Bald eagle, Haliaetus leucocephalus, mounted ; mam-
mals, in alcohol, from Philadelphia.

G. Wright. — Jar mammals and reptiles from Connecticut ; fishes
from Cuba, said to be viviparous ; jars of reptiles, fishes, and inver-
tebrates from Cuba.

G. Wilrdemann. — Box of invertebrates and skins of birds from In-
dian Key, Florida ; box of bird skins from south Florida ; box of
birds, Crustacea, corals, &c., from Key Biscayne, Florida.

J. E. Younglove. — Bottle of blind fish, {Amhlyopsis,) taken in a well
in Bowling Green, Kentucky.

TJnknown. — Box iron ores, St. Louis, Missouri.
Hesperomys cognatus, in alcohol.
Hammerhead shark from Norfolk.
Living raccoon and great horned owl.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

55

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS

FOR THE YEAR 1857.

BRITISH AMERICA.

Name of observer.

Baker, J. C

Craigie, Dr. W

Delany, jr, , John

Gunn, Donald

Hall, Dr. Archibald

Hensley, Ecv. J. M

Magnetic Observatory

Small wood, Dr. Charles

Steuart, A. P. S

Station.

Stanbridge, Canada East

Hamilton, Canada West

Colonial Building, St. John's

Newfoundland.
Red river Settlement, Hudson's

Bay Territory.

Montreal, Canada East

King's College, Windsor, Nova'

Scotia.
Toronto, Canada West ...
St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada

East.
Horton, Nova Scotia

N. lat.

W. long

o /

O '

45 08

73 00

43 15

79 57

47 35

52 38

50 06

97 00

45 30

73 36

44 59

64 07

43 39

79 21

45 32

73 36

45 06

64 25

Pleight

t&et.

85c

57
200

108
118

95

MAINE.

Name of observer.

Bell, John J

Dana, W. D ...
Gardiner, R. H.,
Guptill, G. W..
Parker, J. D...

West, Silas

Willis, Henrv--
Wilbur, Benj. F

Station.

Carmel

Perry

Gardiner ...
Cornish ville

Steuben

Cornish

Portland . .
Monson

County.

Penobscot . .
Washington
Kennebec ..

York

Washington

York

Cumberland
Piscataquis .

N. lat.

W. long.

O '

O '

44 47

69 GO

45 00

67 06

44 11

69 46

43 40

70 44

44 44

67 58

43 40

70 44

43 39

70 15

43 11

69 35

Height.

Ftd.
175
100

90
800

50
784

87

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Bell, Samuel N

Bixby, A. H

Brown, B. Gould

Freeman, F. N

Hanscam, R. F

Mack, E. C

Odell, Fletcher

Prescott, Dr. Wm

Purmort, Nath

Root, Dr. Martin N...

Sawyer, Henry E \

Manchester

Francestown

Stratford

Claremont

North Barnstead -

Londonderry

Shelburn ...

Concord

West Enfield

Francestown

Great Falls

Concord

Hillsborough.
Hillsborough

Coos . .

Sullivan

Belknaj)

Rockingham.

Coos

Merrimack ..

Grafton

Hillsborough ,
Strafford....
Merrimack. . .

42 59

!
71 28

42 59

71 45 !

44 08

71 34

43 29

72 22

43 38

71 27

42 53

71 20

44 23

71 06

43 12

71 29

43 30

72 00

43 00

71 46

43 17

70 52

43 12

71 20

300

1,000
535

700
374

56

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

VERMONT.

Name of observer.

Bliss, George

Bliss, L. W

Buckland, David

Fairbanks, Franklin

Marsh, Charles

Jackman, A

Paddock, James A...

Parker, Joseuh

Petty, McK.'.

Station.

Shelburn

West Fairlee.
Brandon

St. Johnsbury
Woodstock ..

Norwich

Craftsbury

Rupert

Buriinarton ..

County.

Chittenden

Orange

Rutland

Caledonia .
Windsor .,
Windsor ..

Orleans

Bennington
Chittenden

N. lat.

W. long.

O '

O '

44 23

73 00

43 55

72 15

43 45

73 00

44 25

72 00

4.S 36

72 35

43 42

72 20

44 40

72 30

43 15

73 11

44 29

73 11

MASSACHUSETTS.

Bacon, William

Bond, Prof. W. C

Brooks, John

Darling, L. A

Davis, Rev. Emerson..

Ellis, D. H

Fallon, John

Holcomb, Amasa

Lyons, Curtis J )

MaGee, Irving j

Metcalf, Jno. G., M. D.
Mitchell, Hon. Wm...

Perkins, Dr. H. C

Rice, Henry

Rodman, > amuel

Pargent, John S._.

Schlegel, Albert

Shaw, Francis

Smith, E L

Snell, Prof. E. S

Tirrell, Dr. N. Quincy.
Whitcomb, L. F

Richmond ^ .

Cambridge

Princeton

Bridgewater

Westfield

Canton

Lawrence

Southwick

Williamstown..

Mendon .

Nantucket

New bury port ..
North Attleboro'

New Bedford

Worcester

Taunton

Plainfield

Boston

Amherst

Weymouth

Florida

Berkshire
Middlesex
Worcester
Plymouth
Hampden ,
Norfolk ..

Essex

Hampden

Berkshire . ,

Worcester
Nantucket

Essex

Bristol

Bristol

Worcester .
Bristol ....
Hampshire

Suflblk

Hampshire
Norfolk...
Berkshire .

42 23

73 20

42 22

71 07

42 28

71 63

42 00

71 00

42 06

72 48

42 12

71 08

42 42

71 11

42 02

72 10

42 43

73 13

42 06

72 33

41 16

70 06

42 47

70 52

41 59

71 22

41 39

70 56

42 16

71 48

41 49

71 09

42 30

72 56

42 22

71 03

42 22

72 34

42 10

71 00

42 42

73 10

RHODE ISLAND.

Caswell , Prof. A Providence Providence

41 49

'1 25

CONNECTICUT.

Edwards, Rev. T , D.D.

Harrison, Benj. F

Hull, Aaron B

Hunt, D

Rankin, James

Scholheld, N

Yeomans, William H..

New London New London .

Walliugford New Haven . .

Georgetown Fairfield

Pomfret Windham . . .

Say brook Middlesex

Norwich New London.

Columbia i Tolland

41 21

72 12

41 26

72 50

41 15

73 00

41 52

72 23

41 18

72 20

41 32

72 03

41 42

72 16

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

NEW YORK.

57

Name of observer.

Alba, Dr. E. M

Arden, Thomas B

Bowman, John

Byram, Ephiaim N. ..

Chickering, J. W

Dayton, E. A

Denning, William H..
Dewev, Prof. Chester )

Palmer, F. B f

Fellows, Henry B

French, John R

Gorton, J. S.

Greene, Prof. Dascom..

Guest, W. E

House, J. Carroll

House, John C.

Howell, R

Ingalls, S. Marshall...

Johnson, E. W

Landon, Anna S _.

Lefferts, John

Malcolm, Wm. S

Morehouse, A. W

Morris, Prof. 0. W

Norton, J. H

Paine, H. N.,M. D

Pernot, Prof Claudius.

Reed, Edward C

Reid, Peter

Riker, Walter H

Sanger, Dr. W. W

Sartwell. Dr. H. P

Sheerar, H. M

Sias. Prof. Solomon

Smith, J. Metcalf

Spooner, Stillman

Taylor, Jos. W

Titus, Henry Wm

Tourtellot, Dr. LA..
Van Kleek, Rev. R. D.

Wliite, Aaron

Williams, Dr. P.

Wilson, Rev. W. D

Woodward, Lewis

Yale, Walter D

Zaepffel, I

Station.

County.

Angelica

Beverly

Baldwinsville

Sag Harbor

Ovid

Madrid

Fishkill Landing.

Rochester ...

Sennett

Mexico

Westfarms

Troy

Ogdensburgh

Lowville.

Waterford

Nicholls

Pompey

Canton

Eden

Lodi .

Oswego

Spencertown

New York

Plainville

Clinton

Fordham .

Homer ..

Lake

Saratoga

Blackwell's Isl'd.

Penn Yan

Wellsville

Fort Edward

McGrawville

Wampsville

Plattsburgh

Bellport

Utica

Flatbush

Cazenovia

Wate^to^vn

Geneva

West Concord

Houseville .

West Monisania

Alleghany .
Putnam . ..
Onondaga ..

Suflfolk

Seneca .. ..
St. Lawrence
Dutchess

Monroe

Cayuga

Oswego »

Westchester
Rensselaer..
St. Lawrence

Lewis.-

Saratoga

Tioga

Onondaga ..
St. Lawrence

Erie

Seneca

Oswego

Columbia

New York...
Onondaga ...

Oneida

Westchester .

Cortland

Washington

Saratoga

New York...

Yates

Alleghany...
Washington .

Cortland

Madison

Clinton

Suffolk

Oneida ,

Kings

Madison

Jefferson

Ontario

Erie

Lewis -

Westchester .

N. lat.

42 15
41 22

43 04

41 00

42 41

44 43

41 34

43 08

43 00

43 27
40 53

42 44

44 43

43 46
42 47
42 00
42 56

44 38
42 30

42 37

43 28

42 19
40 43

43 00
43 00
40 54

42 38

43 15
43 06
40 45
42 42

42 07

43 13

42 34

43 04

44 40
40 44
43 07
40 37

42 55

43 56

42 53

43 00
43 40
40 53

W. long.

78 01
72 12
76 41

72 20

76 52

75 33
74 IS

77 51

76 55
7G 14

74 01

73 36

75 26

75 38
73 31)

76 32
76 05

75 15

79 07

76 53

77 34

73 41

74 05
77 15

75 20
74 03

76 11

73 33

74 00
73 57

77 11

78 OG
73 42
76 11

75 50
73 26
72 54

75
74

15
01
75 46
75 55
77 02
79 00
75 32
74 01

NEW JERSEY.

Cooke, Robert L

Schmidt, Dr. E. R

Sergeant, John T

Simpson, B. F |

Willis, 0. R \

Whitehead, W. A

Bloomfield . ...

Burlington

Sergeantsville . .

Essex .

Burlington
Hunterdon

Freehold . Monmouth

Newark t Essex .

40 49

74 11

40 00

75 12

40 29

75 03

40 15

74 21

40 45

74 10

58

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Name of observer.

Station.

County.

N. lat.

W. long.

Height.

o

/

o

/

Feet.

Brown, Samuel

Bedford

Bedford

40

01

78

30

Baird, John H

Tarentum

Alleghany

40

37

79

19

950

Brickenstein, H. A

Nazareth ..

Northampton

40

43

75

21

Brugger, Samuel

Fleming

Centre

40

55

77

53

780

Coffin, Selden,J

Easton

Northampton

40

43

75

16

320

Byberry .

Pocopson

Philadelphia

Chester

40

0(i

74

58

Darlington, Fenelon..

39

54

75

37

218

Edwards, J osepli

Chromedale

Delaware.

39

55

75

25

196

Eggert, John

Berwick

Columbia

41

05

76

15

588

Friel, P

Shamokin

Northumberland.
Bucks

40
40

45
1?-

76
74

31
53

700

30

Heisely, Dr. John

Harrisburg

Dauphin

40

16

76

50

Hickok, W.

Harrisburg

Dauphin

40

16

76

55

Hoffer, Mary E

Mount Joy

Lancaster

40

08

76

70

Jacobs Rev M

Gettysburg

Lewisburg

Adams .

39

51

77

15

James, Prof. Charles S. .

Union

40

5R

76

58

Kirkpatrick, Prof. J. A.

Philadelphia

Philadelphia

39

57

75

11

60

North Whitehall

Lehigh

40

40

75

?6

25C

Martin, "William

Pittsburg.

Alleghany

40

30

80

00

Mowry, George

Somerset.

Somerset

40

02

79

02

2,180

Ealston, Eev. J. Grier.

Norristown

Montgomery

40

08

75

19

153

Schreiner, Francis

Moss Grove

Crawford

41

40

79

51

Smith, Prof. Wm

Canonsburg

Washington

40

25

80

07

936

Smyser, Piev. B. R

Pottsville

Schuylkill

40

41

76

09

Stewart, Thos. B ..

Murrysville

Westmoreland ..

40

28

79

35

9GC

Swift, Dr. Paul

West Haverford.

Delaware

40

00

75

21

Thickstun, T. F

Meadville

Crawford

41

39

SO

11

1,088

Wilson, Prof. W.C

Carlisle

Cumberland

40

12

1 1

11

500

Wilson, W.W

Pittsburg

Alleghany

40

32

80

02

l,02fc

DELAWARE.

Craven, Thos. J )

Porter, Mrs. E. D. J

Newark .

Milford

New Castle

Kent

39 38
39 55

75 47
75 27

120
25

MARYLAND.

Baer, Miss H. M

Cofrau, L. R

Goodman, Wm. R..
Haushew, Htmry E..

Lowndes, Benj.

Mayer, Prof. Alfred .
Pearce, James A., jr.
Stagg, T. G

Shellman Hills. -

Oakland

Annapolis

Frederick

Bladensburg

Baltimore

Cliestertawn

Ridge

Carroll

Alleghany

Anne Arundel

Frederick

Prince George

Baltimore

Kent

St. Mary's

39 23

76 57

39 40

79 00

38 58

76 29

39 24

77 18

38 57

76 58

39 18

76 37

39 14

76 02

38 05

76 18

DLSTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

Smithsonian Institu-
tion.

Washington ...

Washington 38 53

77 01

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

VIEaiNIA.

59

Name of observer.

Astrop, Col. R. F

Couch, Samuel

Dickinson, George C

Ellis, Col. D. H

Fauntleroy, H. H

Eraser, James

Hallowell, Benjamin..

Hoff, Josiah W

Hotchkiss, Jed ..

Johnson, Enoch D

Kendall, James E

Kownslar, Miss Ellen .

Marvin, John W

Offutt, J. J.,M. D

I'atton, Thomas, M. D.

Purdie, John R

Ruftin, Julian C

Ruffner, David L

Slaven, James

Upshaw^, George W

Webster, Prof. N B ..

Wells, J. Carson

Wickliue, Thomas J ..

Station.

Crichton's Store.

Ashland

Rougemont

Crack Whip

Montrose

Mustapha

Alexandria

WirtC. H

Mossy Creek

Sisterville

Charleston

Berry ville

Winchester

Capon Bridge

Lewisburg

Smithfield

Ruthven

Kanawha

Meadow Dale

Rose Hill

Portsmouth

Salem

Long wood

County.

N. lat.

W. long.

Height.

Brunswick

Putnam -

Albemarle

1 Hardy

o /
36 40
38 38

38 05

39 30

38 07

39 20

38 48

39 05

38 20

39 34

38 20

39 09
39 15
39 16
38 00

36 50

37 21

38 53
38 23

38 00

36 50

39 20

37 30

o /

77 46
81 57

78 21

78 31

76 54
81 41

77 01
81 26

79 05

80 56

81 21

78 00
78 10

78 29

80 00

76 41

77 33

81 25

79 35
76 57
76 19

80 01
79 31

Fed.
500

450
1,750

Westmoreland ..
Wood

200

Alexandria

Wirt

56

Augusta

Tyler

540

Jefferson

Clark

575

Frederick

Hampshire

Greenbrier

Isle of Wight...

Prince George

Kanawha

Highland

Essex —

Norfolk

Roanoke

Rockbridge

2,000
100

250

34

1,10C

80C

NORTPI CAROLINA.

Johnson, Dr. W. M...

McDowell, Rev. A

McDowell, W. W

Moore, Geo. F., M. D.
Morelle, Daniel

Warrenton . .
Murfreesboro'

Asheville

Gaston

Goldsboro' . .

Phillips, Rev. Jas. , D. D Chapel Hill

Warren

Hertford

Buncombe

Northampton

Wayne

Orange

36 30

78 15

36 30

77 06

35 37

82 29

36 32

77 45

35 20

77 51

35 54

79 17

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Cornish , John H

Dawson, John L. , M, D.

Fuller, E.N.,M. D .j

Glennie, Rev. Alex'r..
Johnson, Joseph, M. D
Young, J. A., M. D...

Aiken

Charleston

Edisto Island

Mount PJeisant .

Waccaman

Charleston

Camden

Barnwell .
Charleston
Colleton. -
Laurens..
All Saints
Charleston
Kershaw .

33 32

81 34

32 46

80 00

32 34

80 18

32 47

79 55

33 40

79 17

32 46

80 00

34 17

80 33

GEORGIA.

Anderson, Jas , M. D .

Arnold, Mrs. J. T

Easter, Prof. John D..
Gibson, R, T

The Rock

Zebulon

Athens

Whitemarsh Is'd.

Upson ...

Pike

Clarke ..
Savannah

32 52

84 23

33 07

84 26

33 58

83 SO

32 04

81 05

60

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

GEOEGIA— Continued.

Name of observer.

Glover, Eli S

Haines, William

Pendleton, E.M.,M.D

Posey, John F

Eeid, James M

Simpson, F. T

Station.

Hillsboro'

Augusta .

Sparta

Savannah

Philomath . . .
Factory Mills

County.

Jasper

Richmond
Hancock ..
Chatham ..
Oglethorpe
Wilkes....

N. lat.

W. long.

O '

O '

33 13

83 45

33 20

81 54

33 17

83 09

32 05

81 07

33 45

83 15

33 40

84 46

FLORIDA.

Bailey, James B

Baldwin, A. G., M. D

Batchelder, F. L

Dennis, Wm. C

Fry, Joseph

Hester, Lieut. J.
W., U. S. N...

Ives, Edward R

Mauran, P. B., M. D
Steele, Judge Aug..
Whitner, Benj. F

Gainesville

Jacksonville

Hibernia

Salt Ponds

Pensacola

Alachua..

Duval

Duval

Key West

Escambia.

Alligator _ . | Columbia

St. Augustine

Cedar Keys

Belair

St. John's.

Levy

Leon

29 35

82 26

30 30

82 00

30 15

81 30

24 33

81 48

30 20

87 IG

30 12

82 37

29 48

81 35

29 07

83 02

30 24

84 20

ALABAMA.

Alison, H. L , M. D...

Barker, Thomas M

Darby, Prof. John

Tutwiler, Henry

Waller, Robert B

Carlowville I Dallas .

Ashville . ' St Clair

Macon _
Greene.
Greene .

Auburn

Greene Springs.,
Greensboro'

Barton, Dr. E. H.

Kilpatrick, A. R.,M. D.
Merrill, Edward, M. D.
Taylor, Lewes B

New Orleans

Trinity

Trinity

New Orleans

32 10

87 15

33 52

86 20

32 37

8a 34

32 50

87 46

32 40

87 34

MISSISSIPPI.

Elliott, Prof. J. Boyd..
Lull, James S

Port Gibson

Columbus

Claiborne

Lowndes .

31 50
33 30

91 01

88 29

■ 100
227

LOUISIANA.

Orleans

Chatahoula
Chatahoula
Orleans

29 57

90 00

31 30

91 46

31 37

91 47

29 57

90 00

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVEES.

TEXAS.

61

Name of observer.

Brightman, John C. ■<

Forke, J. L

Forke, A I

Friedrick, Otto j

Gaatt, Dr. Wm. IT

Jennii]g-;,S.K.,M.D

Van Nostrand, J..
Rucker, B. H

Station.

County.

Goliad

Helena

New Wied.

Goliad .
Karnes.
Comal .

New Braumfels.. Comal .

Union Hill Washington

Austin Travis

Washington I Washington

N. lat.

W. long

O '

O '

28 3n

97 15

29 00

97 5G

29 42

98 15

29 41

98 15

30 30

96 31

30 20

97 46

30 2C

96 15

Height.

TENNESSEE.

Bean, James B ..| Walnut Grove Greene

Stewart, Prof. Wm. M. Glcuwood Montgomery.

Tuck, W. J., M. D Memphis Shelby

Wright, Dr. Dan' 1 F.. Memphis Shelby

36 00

82 53

36 28

87 13 1

35 08

90 00

35 08

90 00

KENTUCKY.

Beatty,

Ray, L. G., M. D

Savage, Rev. Geo. S

Young, Mrs. Lawrence.

Danville Boyle

Paris Bourbon .

Millersburg ! Bourbon .

Springdale | Jefferson

37 40

84 30

: 38 16

84 07

38 20

84 20

38 07

85 34

OHIO.

Abell, B. F

Allen, Prof Geo. N...

Ammen, J

Anthony, Newton

Atkins, Rev. L. S

Benner, J. F

Bennett, Henry

Binkerd, J. S

Bosworth, Prof. R. S..
Cunningham, Miss A.-
Dayton , Lewis M

Gilmor, Moses

Hannaford, Ebenezer..

Harper, George W

Herrick, James D

Hollenbeck, F. &D.K.
Holston, J. G. F.,M. D.

Hurt, Francis W

Hyde, Gustavus A

Ingram, John, M. D

Janes, C. C

Luther, S. M

Welchfield

Oberlin

Ripley

Mount Union

Madison

New Lisbon _-..

Collingwood

Germantown

College mil

Union ville

Lancaster

Jackson .

Cheviot

Cincinnati

Jefferson

Perrysburg

Zanesville

Cincinnati

Cleveland

Savannah

Hillsborough . . .
Hiram ....

Geauga

Loraine

Brown

Stark

Lake

Columbiana

Lucas

Montgomery
Hamilton ..

Lake

Fairfield . . .
Jackson . ..
Hamilton ..
Hamilton ..
Ashtabula. .

Wood

Muskingum
Hamilton ...
Cuyahoga ..

Ashland

Highland.
Portage

41 23

81 12

41 20

82 15

38 47

83 31

41 20

81 01

41 49

81 10

40 45

80 46

41 49

83 34

39 39

84 11

39 19

84 25

41 52

81 00

39 40

82 40

39 10

82 32

39 07

84 34

39 06

84 27

42 00

81 00

41 39

S3 40

39 58

82 01

39 06

84 34

41 30

81 40

41 12

82 31

41 20

81 15

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

OHIO— Continued.

Name of observer.

Station.

N. lat.

W. long.

o

,

83

30

82

01

83

45

82

49

82

01

82

34

81

00

84

10

83

40

84

11

83

45

81

05

81

47

83

43

Height.

Mathews, Joseph McD.

McCarty, H. D

Peck, W. R., M.D....

Poe, James H

Roger, A. P

Sanford, Prof. S. N....

Sanford, Smith ;

Schenck, W. L , M. D.!

Shaw, Joseph — I

Shaw, Joseph

Shields, Robert )

Smith, JohnC j

Treat, Samuel W

Ward, L. F

Williams, Prof. M. G..

Hillsborough . . .
West Bedford...
Bowling Green _.

Portsmouth

Gallipolis

Granville

Edinburg

Franklin

Bellefontaine . ..
Sidney

Bellecentre

Windham

Medina

Urbana

o '

Highland 39 13

Coshocton 40 18

Wood ! 41 27

Scioto I 38 50

Gallia j 39 00

Licking | 40 03

Portage j 41 20

Warren j 39 30

Logan 40 21

Shelby 40 21

Logan

Portage

Medina

Champaign .

40 28

41 10
41 07
40 06

1,0c

MIUHIGAN.

Allen, James

Andrews, SethL., M.D.
Campbell, Wm.M.,M.D.

Crosby, J. B —

Currier, Alfred

Streng, L. H

Walker, Mrs.OctaviaC.

Whelpley, Miss H

White, Peter

Whittlesey, Chas. S...

Winchell, Prof. A

Woodruff, Lum

Port Huron

Romeo

Battle Creek

New Buffalo

Grand Rapids ..
Grand Piiipids. .

Cooper

Monroe

Marquette

Copper Falls

Ann Arbor

Ann Arbor

St. Clair...

Macomb

Calhoun

Berrien

Kent

Kent

Kalamazoo.

]\Ionroe

Marquette .
Houghton .
Washtenaw
Washtenaw

42 53

82 24

42 44

83 00

42 20

85 10

41 45

86 46

43 00

86 00

43 00

86 00

42 40

85 31

41 56

83 22

46 32

87 41

47 25

88 16

42 16

83 44

42 16

83 30

INDIANA.

Barnes, C

Chappellsmith, John..

Crisp, John F

Lasselle, Charles B

Moore, Joseph.

Smith, Hamilton

Woodard, C. S _.

New Albany

New Harmony . .

Evans ville

Logansport.

Richmond

Caunelton

Michigan City

Floyd

Posey

Vanderburgh
Cass

Wayne .

Perry

La Porte

38 17

85 45

38 08

87 50

38 08

87 29

40 45

86 13

39 47

84 47

37 58

86 40

41 41

86 53

ILLINOIS.

Babcock, Andrew J —
Babcock, E

Baker, Frank

Bowman, Dr. E. H...
Brendel, Fred'k, M.D.
Eldredge, William V.

iiurora Kane

Riley McHenry.

South Pass.
Edgiugton ,

Peoria

Brighton.

Union.
Rock Island.

Peoria

Macoupin...

41 40

88 15

42 08

88 33

37 28

89 14

41 25

90 46

40 36

89 30

, 39 00

90 13

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

ILLINOIS— Continued.

63

Name of observer.

Station.

County.

N. lat.

W. long.

O '

'

39 33

90 34

39 52

89 56

41 20

88 47

41 53

87 41

39 00

89 36

41 14

89 21

40 12

89 45

41 52

88 20

40 36

89 45

42 14

88 38

42 18

88 06

40 09

.88 17

38 30

88 00

40 23

90 17

40 20

91 31

Height.

Grant, John

Hall, Joel

Harris, J. 0..M. D...
Hiscox, G. D

James, Anna

Jenkins, J. L

Mead, S. B , M. D

Mead, Thompson

Rihlet, J. H

Eogers, 0. P

Smith, Isaac H

Swain, John, M. D

Titze, Henry A

Wallace, Samuel Jacob
Whitaker, Benjamin ..

Manchester

Athens

Ottawa

Chicago

Upper Alton

Granville

Augusta

Batavia

Pekin

Marengo

Fremont Centre
West Urbaua...

West Salem

Carthage

Warsaw

Scott

Menard

La Salle...

Cook

Madison

Putnam

Hancock

Kane

Tazewell . .
McHenry. .

Lake

Champaign
Edwards . .
Hancock . .
Hancock . .

MISSOUEI.

Wislizenus, A., M. D. ; St. Louis.

St. Louis.

38 37

90 16

IOWA.

Beal, Dexter )

Beal, WillardW.. [

Beeman, Carlisle D

Fory, John C

Goss, William K

Hobart, Edward F

Horr, Asa, M. D

McConnell, Townsend.

McCready, Daniel

Parker, Nathan H

Parvin, T. S |

Ee}Tiolds, W

Saville, Dr. J. J i

Shaffer, J. M., M. D..J
Smith, Prof, B. Wilson

Franklin. _

Piossville

Bellevue

Border Plains

Maquoketa

Dubuque

Pleasant Plain

Fort Madison

Clinton

Muscatine

Iowa City

Sioux City

Fairfield

Mount Vernon

Buchanan .

Allamakee

Jackson

Webster . .

Jackson

Dubuque.
Jefferson . .

Lee

Clinton

Muscatine
Johnson..
Woodbury
Jefferson .
Linn

42 45

87 16

43 10

91 21

42 15

90 25

42 36

94 05

42 04

90 41

42 30

90 52

41 07

91 54

40 37

91 28

41 48

90 15

41 26

91 05

41 39

91 33

42 31

96 25

1 41 01

91 57

! 42 00

1

91 00

WISCONSIN.

Bean, Prof. S. A )

Slye, L. C, M. D. \

Breed, J. Everett

Chandler, Marine T.W.

Durham, W. J

Ellis, Edwin

Gridley, Rev. John

Hillier, Spencer L

Himoe, John E

Waukesha

New London

Falls of St. Croix

Kacine

Bay City

Kenosha

Prescott

Norway

Waukesha

Waupacca

Polk

Racine

La Pointe
Kenosha .

Pierce

Racine ...

42 50

88 11

44 21

88 45

45 30

92 40

,42 49

87 40

46 33

91 00

42 35

87 50

44 56

92 40

42 50

88 10

833

660

658
600
800
753

64

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

WISCONSIN— Coutinued.

Name of observer.

Lapham, Increase A.

Lups, Jacob

Mason, Prof. R. Z...
Pickard, J. L., M. D

Pomeroy, F. C.

Porter, Prof Wm...

Schue, A., M. D

Sterling. Prof. J. W.

Struthers, R. H

Underwood, Col. D..
Winkler, C, M. D-.
Willard, J. F

Station.

Milwaukie.
Manitowoc
Appleton. .
PJatteville.
Milwaukie.

Beloit

Madison . . .
Madison . . .

Lind

Menasha ..
Milwaukie.
Janesville .

County.

Milwaukie.
Manitowoc
Outagamie.

Grant

Milv/aukie.

Rock

Dane

Dane

Waupacca .
Winnebago
Milwaukie -
Roek

N. lat.

W. long.

O 1

C '

43 03

87 57

44 07

87 37

44 10

88 35

42 45

91 00

43 04

87 59

42-30

89 04

43 05

89 25

43 05

89 25

44 20

89 00

44 13

88 IS

43 04

87 57

42 42

89 91

MINNESOTA.

Garrison, 0. E .

Hillier, Spencer L. .
OdeU, Rev. Benj. F

Riggs, S. R.

Walsh, Stephen

Wright, E.M

Princeton

Wabashaw

Lake Winuibi-
goshish.

Hazlewood

Buchanan

Lapham

Benton

Wabashaw.

Pembina

45 50

93 45

44 30

92 15

47 30

94 40

45

95 30

47 33

92 00

46 10

96 00

NEBRASKA.

Byers, Wm. N

Hamilton, William..

Omaha 1 Douglas.

Bellevue Sari^y . . .

KANSAS.

Brown. G. W

Fish, Edmund

Gooduow, Isaac T. .
Himoe, S 0., M. D
McCarty, H. D

Lawrence

Council City

Manhattan

MajDleton

Leavenworth City

Douglas

Shawnee

Riley ,

Bourbon

Leavenworth

38 58

95 12

38 42

95 50

39 13

96 45

38 04

94 51

39 20

94 33

UTAH.

Phelps, Henry E.

Great Salt Lake
City.

40 45 111 26

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

CALIFORNIA.

65

Name of observer.

Station.

County.

N. lat.

W. long.

Height.

Ayres, W. 0., M. D

Belcher, W. C

San Francisco

Marysville

Sacramento

San Francisco

Yuba

o /

37 48
39 12

38 35

-

O '

122 23
121 42
121 40

Ffxt.
115

Logan, Thos. M., M.D.

Sacramento

49

GUATEMALA.

CANUDUS, ANTONIO COLLEGE.

SOUTH AMERICA.

Name of Observer.

Station.

Lat.

Lon.

Height.

Fendler, A

Colonia Tovar, Venezuela

Port of Spain , Trinidad

'

10 26
10 39

5 48
4 36

O '

67 20
61 34

56 47
74 14

Feet.
6 500

Geological Survevors. . . .

i<;

Hering, C. J. -...__

Plantation, Catharina Sophia,
Colony of Surinam, Dutch Gui-
ana

Uricoschea, Dr. E

Bogota, New Granada ..._

8,863

BERMUDA.

Arnold, James B. ........

Shelby Bay ..

32 28

64 32

Royal Gazette ....

AZORES.

Dabney, S. W

Honta, Fayal Island .......

38 30

28 42

80

6 s

66 EEPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

EEPOl^T or THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee respectfully submit to the Board of Ee-
gents the following report of the receipts and expenditures of the
Smithsonian Institution during the year 1857, witli estimates for the
year 1858 :

KECEIPTS.

The whole amount of Smithson's bequest deposited in
the treasury of the United States is $515,169, from
which an annual income, at 6 per cent., is derived, of $30,910 14

Extra fund from unexpended income invested as
follows :
In $75,000 Indiana 5 per cent, bonds,

yielding $3,750 00

In $53,000 Virginia 6 per cent, bonds,

yielding 3,210 00

In $7,000 Tennessee 6 per cent, bonds,

yielding .^ 420 00

In $500 Georgia 6 per cent, bonds, yield-
ing 30 00

In $100 Washington 6 per cent, bonds,

yielding 6 00

7,416 00

38,326 14
Balance in hands of Treasurer Janu-
ary 1, 1857 7,164 32

Total receipts $45,490 46

GENERAL STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURES.

For building, furniture, and fixtures „ $4,062 65

For items common to the different objects

of the Institution 13,035 18

For publications, researches, and lectures. 11,051 52
For library, museum, and gallery of art.. 6,999 81

$35,149 16

Balance in the hands of the Treasurer January 1,

1858, of which $5,000 belongs to the extra fund. 10,341 30

REPOKTS OF COMMITTEES.
Statement in detail of the expenditures during 1857 :

BUILDING, FURNITURE, FIXTURES, ETC.

Eepairs, &c., incident to building $3,305 12

Furniture and fixtures for uses in common. 373 61

Furniture and fixtures for library 163 50

Furniture and fixtures for museum 150 80

Magnetic observatory 49 62

Grounds 20 00

67

$4,062 65

GENERAL EXPENSES.

Meetings of Board and Committees $281 00

Lighting and heating 1,244 33

Postage 524 02

Transportation and exchange 2,264 74

Stationery 347 94

General printing 236 50

Apparatus 191 66

Laboratory 341 38

Salary of the Secretary 3,499 92

Chief clerk 1,200 00

Book-keeper 200 00

Janitor 400 97

Watchmen 534 65

Laborers 794 00

Messenger 128 00

Extra clerk hire 222 00

Incidentals, general o 624 07

13,035 18

PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND LECTURES.

Smithsonian Contributions $6,230 02

Eeports on progress of knowledge 342 00

Other publications 649 90

Meteorology 2,465 24

Investigations, computations, and re-
searches , 250 00

Pay of lecturers 980 00

Incidentals to lectures... 134 36

11,051 52.

LIBRARY, MUSEUM, AND GALLERY OF ART.

Cost of books $2,019 83

Pay of assistants 1,194 12

Transportation for library ' 200 00

Museum— salary 1,999 92

68 EEPOETS OF COMMITTEES.

Explorations 157 52

Collections 49 78

Alcohol, jars, and museum incidentals 445 77

Transportation for museum 450 00

Assistance and labor in museum 500 00

Gallery of art 82 87

$6,999 81

Total expenditure $35,149 16

The estimated income for the year 1857 was $38,290 14, exclusive
of the balance in the hands of the Treasurer ; the actual income ex-
clusive of this balance was $38,326 14.

The estimated expenditure amounted to $34,000, the actual ex-
penditure to $35,149 16. The excess is due to unexpected repairs,
necessary to the building in consequence of a very severe hail
storm, which broke several thousand panes of glass, and otherwise
injured the edifice ; and to the payment of the last unsettled account
contracted by the architect for the gas pipes and fixtures.

The expenditures, however, are less than the income for the year,
leaving a total balance now in the hands of the Treasurer of $10,341 30.
Of this sum^ $5,000 are the remainder of the extra fund, ($125,000,)
intended to be permanently invested, and the whole is at present re-
quired for carrying on the operations of the Institution, until the
receipt of the next semi-annual income.

During the past year, the stocks purchased by the Institution tem-
porarily declined in commercial value, but they are now selling at
about the same prices as those at which they were bought. Fluctua-
tions, however, of this character do not affect the income of the Insti-
tution, since the amount of interest continues permanently the same.

The committee respectfully submit the following estimate of the
receipts and expenditures for the year 1858 :

Receipts.

Balance in the hands of the Treasurer January 1, 1858,

(exclusive of $5,000 belonging to the extra fund) $5,341 30

Interest on the original fund for 1858 .- 30,910 14

Interest on the extra fund invested in State stocks 7,416 00

1,667 44
Expenditures.

BUILDING, FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, ETC.

Repairs and incidentals $1,500 00

Furniture and fixtures in common 500 00

'' " for library ! 150 00

'' " for museum 150 00

Magnetic observatory 50 00

$2,350 00

REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 69

GENERAL EXPENSES.

Meetings of Board and committees $300 00

Lighting and heating 600 00

Postage 500 00

Transportation and exchange 2,500 00

Stationery 350 00

General printing 350 00

Apparatus 250 00

Laboratory 400 00

Incidentals, general 650 00

Salaries. — Secretary 3,500 00

Chief clerk 1,400 00

Book-keeper 200 00

Janitor..... 400 00

Watchman 500 00

Laborers 800 00

Extra clerk hire 300 00

$13,000 00

PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES AND LECTURES.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge... $6,500 00

Reports 1,500 00

Other publications 1,000 00

Meteorology 3,000 00

Investigations, compucations, and researches 250 00

Lectures 1,000 00

13,250 00

LIBRARY, MUSEUM AND GALLERY OF ART.

Cost of books $3,000 00

Pay of assistants in library 1,200 00

Transportation for library 400 00

Incidentals for library 150 00

Museum— salary 2,000 00

Explorations 50 00

Collections , 50 00

Incidentals, museum, jars, alcohol, &c 300 00

Transportation, museum 550 00

Assistants and labor, museum 600 00

Gallery of art 100 00

8,400 00
$37,000 00

It is impossible to make a very definite estimate of the expendi-
tures on account of the museum, during the year 1858, because the

70 EEPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

collection at the Patent Office is to be transferred to tlie keeping of
the Institution, and the amount of expenditures under this head will
depend upon the appropriation made by Congress for this purpose.

In conclusion, the committee report that they have examined the
books, and each account for the past year, separately, and find them
all correct.

Kespectfully submitted.

J. A. PEAKCE,
A. D. BACHE,
JOS. G. TOTTEN,

Executive Committee,

SEPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 71

KEPORT OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE.

The building of the Smithsonian Institution having been completed,
the special object of the Building Committee for which it was originally-
appointed, might be considered accomplished, and therefore an annual
report no longer necessary ; but as a large portion of the edifice re-
mained unfinished, and since repairs are required which will probably
be very expensive, it is thought proper that the committee should be
continued.

At the last session of Congress an appropriation of fifteen thousand
dollars was made for cases for the accommodation of the collections
belonging to government. These are now finished and form a beauti-
ful addition to the large hall, and are apparently well adapted to the
purpose for which they are intended. With strict economy the appro-
priation of Congress has been found sufficient to provide accommoda-
tions for the present reception of the articles, though in the course of
time additional cases will be required.

The west wing of the building, devoted to the library, has been
furnished with alcoves and a gallery extending around three sides of
the large room. This arrangement, which will serve very much to
increase the accommodation and security of the books, produces a
very pleasing architectural efiect.

The large cisterns in the grounds near the building, which were
directed to be arched over at the last session of the Board, have been
properly secured, and one of them converted into an ice-house.

The balance of a bill for gas fixtures, which had been contracted by
the architect, and which remained unsettled, on account of a disagree-
ment as to certain charges, has been finally paid, after a reduction of
1352 99.

The peculiar style of architecture of the building, and the large
amount of surface it exposes to the weather, renders constant repairs
necessary. During the past year almost the whole time of two work-
men has been occupied in this service.

Eespectfully submitted.

RICHAED RUSH,
WM. H. ENOLISH,
JOSEPH HENRY,

Building Committee.

72 PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS

BOARD OF REGENTS

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTIOK

MONDAY, March 16, 1857.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 11 o'clock
a. m.

Present : Hon. R. B. Tanej, Chancellor, Hon. John C. Breckin-
ridge, James M. Mason, S. A. Douglas, Gen. Jos. G. Totten, Prof.
A. D. Bache, Wm. B. Magruder, and the Secretary.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The Chancellor, Chief Justice Taney, then presented the following
communication :

Washington, 3Iarcli 16, 1857.

Gentlemen : When the Board of Regents was originally organized
it was deemed proper that the Vice President of the United States for
the time being should be elected as the Chancellor. The Institution
exists under the authority of Congress, and they have made certain
officers of the government ex officio Regents. The Vice President is
the highest in rank of the officers thus designated ; and it would seem
to be peculiarly proper that the one who presides over the delibera-
tions of one branch of the national legislature should also preside over
the deliberations of a scientific institution which the nation has brought
into existence and fosters.

Unfortunate events have for some time past left the government
without a Vice President elected by the people. And when that office
was vacant the Regents conferred on me the office which had always
before been filled by the Vice President. And when I accepted it I
regarded the appointment as a temporary one. The reason for the
appointment has now happily ceased, and I desire to give the Regents

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 73

an opportunity of restoring the original plan of organization, in which
I fully concurred when it was adopted.

I therefore resign the office of Chancellor of the Institution, and at
the same time return my thanks for the honor which the Eegents
bestowed upon me in electing me to that office.

But my resignation will not lessen the interest I feel in the Insti-
tution. On the contrary, every year's experience has more and more
convinced me of its usefulness and efficiency in promoting the objects
of its founder, and I shall always be ready to offer my humble aid if
I can be useful in advancing its prosperity and success.

I have the honor to be, with the highest respect, your obedient
servant,

E. B. TANEY.

To the Eegents of the Smithsonian Institution.

Mr. Breckinridge, Vice President of the United States, moved that
the present Chancellor, Chief Justice Taney, be re-elected to that
office, expressing his unwillingness to assume the position which had
been so long and so ably filled by its present occupant.

The motion was adopted unanimously, whereupon Judge Taney
remarked that he was anxious to serve the Institution to the best of
his ability, and he could not decline this expression of the confidence
of the Board if they insisted on his retaining the office of Chancellor.

The Secretary announced that, by joint resolution of the Senate and
House of Eepresentatives, Hon. Eichard Eush, of Pennsylvania, and
Gen. Joseph Gr. Totten, of the city of Washington, had been re-elected
Eegents for six years ; also that the President of the Senate had re-
appointed Hon. James A. Pearce and Hon. James M. Mason, Eegents
for the same period of time.

The Secretary announced to the Board that, since its last meeting,
three distinguished men of science, correspondents of the Institution,
had deceased, namely : Prof. J. W. Bailey, Dr. E. K. Kane, and
Mr. W. C. Eedfield.

On this announcement Prof. Bache offered a series of appropriate
remarks, referring to their eminent services in the promotion of
science.

Gen. Totten offered the following resolutions, which were adopted :

Resolved^ That the Eegents of the Smithsonian Institution have
heard with regret the announcement of the death of Prof, Jacob W.
Bailey, whose communications to the Smithsonian Contributions have

74 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

attracted the notice and won the approval of naturalists throughout
the world.

Besolved, That the Regents offer to the family of Prof. Bailey their
condolence on the loss which they have sustained.

Mr. Douglas offered the following resolutions, which were adopted :

Besolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, in
common with the whole country, have heard with deep regret of the
death of one of their esteemed collaborators. Dr. E. K. Kane, to whom
was committed by this Institution a set of philosophical instruments
for the purpose of research in the polar regions, which he used, and
carefully returned at the hazard of his life, with a series of obser-
vations of great value to science.

Resolved, That the Regents offer to the family of Dr. Kane their
condolence on the loss which they have sustained.

Prof. Bache offered the following resolution, which was adopted :

Resolved, That the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have
heard with regret of the decease of their valued correspondent, William
C. Redfield, of New York, whose labors in meteorology have ren-
dered his name familiar to men of science in every part of the civilized
world, and offer to his family their condolence on the loss which
they have sustained.

A communication from Dr. Robert Hare was read, relative to the
practical construction of minute weights and measures.

On motion of Dr. Magruder, the following resolutions were adopted:

Resolved, That a copy of the communication of Dr. Hare be trans-
mitted to the Secretary of the Treasury, with the recommendation of
the Board of Regents that the instrument offered by Dr. Hare be
received by the government, and placed in the Office of Weights and
Measures.

^ Resolved, That the communication of Dr. Hare be inserted in the
appendix to the report of the Regents to Congress.

A communication from J. A. Johnson, esq., of Maryland, relative
to an "International Geographic and Scientific Commission" was
read and referred to the Executive Committee and the Secretary.

The Secretary made a communication to the Board, relative to an
article which had been published by Prof. S. F. B. Morse, containing
charges against his moral character and his scientific reputation.

The Chancellor made a few remarks, confirming Prof. Henry's
statement as to the advice he had given him respecting this attack.

On motion of Mr. Mason, the following resolution was adopted :

Resolved, That the communication of the Secretary and accompany-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 75

ing documents be referred to a committee, to examine and report upon
it at the next session of the Board of Regents.

Whereupon the Chancellor appointed Messrs. Mason, Pearce, Felton,
and Douglas as the committee.

The Board then adjourned sine die.

Washington, January 20, 1858.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution, fixing the time of the beginning of their
annual meeting on the third Wednesday of January of each year, the
Board met this day in the Regents' room.

No quorum being present, the Board adjourned to meet on Thurs-
day, January 28, 1858.

THURSDAY, January 28, 1858.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 10 a. m.,
in the Smithsonian Institution.

Present : Hon. John C. Breckinridge, Vice President of the United
States, Hon. J. M. Mason^ Hon. S. A. Douglas, Hon. George E.
Badger^ Prof, A. D. Bache, Prof. C. C. Felton^ Mr. Seaton, Treasurer,
and the Secretary.

In the absence of the Chancellor the Vice President was called to
the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The Secretary stated that, since the last meeting of the Board, the
Speaker of the House of Representatives had appointed Hon. William
H. English, of Indiana, Hon. Benjamin Stanton, of Ohio, and Hon.
L.J. Gartrell, of Georgia, as Regents for the term of their service as
members of the House.

The Treasurer presented a statement of the receipts and expendi-
tures during the year 1857^ and also a general statement of the funds;
which were referred to the Executive Committee.

The following communication was presented :

Washington, January 23, 1858.
Gentlemen : The undersigned offers for sale, and respectfully sug-
gests to your honorable Board the propriety of purchasing, the gallery

of Indian portraits now, and for some years past, in the Smithsonian
Institution.

76 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

He proposes to sell the whole collection described in the catalogue
published by the Institution, one hundred and fifty-two in number ?
for the sum of twelve thousand dollars — one-third of the same cash
and the remainder at'two equal annual instalments ; or, if it should
be preferred, one-fourth down and the residue in three equal annual
instalments.

The undersigned commenced his labors in this work in 1842, and
devoted the best years of his life in travelling through the region of
our country peopled principally by the red man — through the wilds
of Oregon and what is now Washington Territory. All of the por-
traits are accurate likenesses of prominent chiefs and braves, and
readily recognized by men who have had intercourse with the various
tribes of Indians.

Since 1852 he has cherished the hope (but has not been able to
realize it) that Congress would authorize the purchase of this collec-
tion. He has J up to this time, made sacrifices — such as one believing
in the merit of his own work, and whose zeal in persevering through
arduous and unremitting toil to accomplish it, alone would make — to
keep this collection together. He will not affect the modesty of
refraining from expressing his belief that no other gallery (aside from
what artistic merit the public may award it) possesses the interest,
in a national point of view, that this does. Some of the chiefs repre-
sented are no longer living ; and_, to the little we know of their history
it will be some satisfaction to add the perpetuation of their features.
These were taken from life and in the character they themselves pre-
ferred to be handed down to the gaze of future generations.

The price at which he offers this collection will not more than cover
the outlay in cost of material, transportation, insurance, travelling
expenses, &c., and will not afford him any compensation for his time
and labor. Taking, as he humbly conceives, the intrinsic .value of
these Indian portraits into consideration, he will receive no pecuniary
profit by their disposal on the terms named.

His ardent desire that they should be preserved, as a national work,
in some place at the capital of our country ; his failure heretofore to
induce Congress to agree to their purchase, and the more pressing
reasons of liabilities now maturing, impel him to make this proposi-
tion. Your honorable Board are again requested to consider it and
communicate your answer at as early a day as is convenient. If the
purchase of the portraits is not authorized by you, he will be com-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 77

pelled to expose them at public auction in time to liave tlie proceeds
available by the Ist of May next.

The undersigned will take this occasion to tender his acknowledg-
ments to the Board and Professor Henry for the use of the hall in the
Institution where the gallery now is, and for other courtesies, which
he will always appreciate.

I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

J. M. STANLEY.

The Hon. Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.

On motion, this communication was referred to a special committee,
and Messrs. Felton, Douglas, and Badger were appointed.

The Secretary laid before the Board a present from Miss Contaxaki,
of Greece, consisting of a volume of drawings, &c., illustrating the
celebrated works of art in her own land, together with the following
letters :

Washington, November 23, 1857.

Sir : During my last trip to the east I was charged by Miss Eliza-
beth B. Contaxaki, a native of the isle of Crete, with an '' ornamental
album," which she desired me to present, through you, to the Smith-
sonian Institution. In forming the work, this lady designed it as a
contribution to the Universal Exhibition at Paris, in 1855, worthy of
the classic renown of the ancient city of Athens. So ardent is her
admiration of the United States and its institutions that she wishes
it to be permanently placed in this country, and having a high appre-
ciation of you as an American statesman, and your reputation as a
classical scholar, she desired that I would request you to offer it in
her name to the Smithsonian Institution.

The " Classical Bouquet/' as it is entitled, consists of illustrations
of the principal monuments and places in the kingdom of Greece, to
which are added a few from her native isle of Crete, not yet emanci-
pated from the Moslem yoke. These illustrations are explained by
quotations from the ancient Greek authors in the original language,
beautifully illuminated ; whilst many of the pages are adorned with
flowers culled from the spots which the drawings represent.

Miss Contaxaki is the sole originator and authoress of it, assisted
in its execution by native artists of Greece. The beauty of the finish,
and the faithfulness and accuracy of the quotations from Hesiod,
Homer, Xenophon, Plato, and others, show that the present sons and

78 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

daughters of the renowned ancient city of Minerva are not insensible
of the glory that was once attached to her name, nor incapable of
appreciating those monuments of art, science, and literature which
still survive.

Feeling assured that^ as an eminent classical scholar, you will fully
appreciate the worth of the Classical Bouquet, I beg to present it,
through you, to the Smithsonian Institution, in her name.

With sentiments of the highest respect, I remain your obedient

servant,

CHAS. S. SPENCE.
Hon. Lewis Cass,

Secretary of State.

Washington City, November 25, 1857,
Sir: I send you herewith a splendid album, together with a letter
from Mr. Spence, explanatory of the circumstances of its execution
and transmission to this country. I perform the duty of presenting it
to the Smithsonian Institution with great pleasure, for it is a finished
specimen of taste and art, worthy of a prominent place in your inter-
esting collection. Mr. Spence has so well described it that any
further reference to it on my part is unnecessary.

I am, dear sir, respectfully yours,

LEWIS CASS.
Prof. Henry,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington City.

On motion, the work was referred to Professor Felton, to report a
resolution expressive of the high appreciation of the gift on the part
of the Board, and a letter of acknowledgment to M iss Contaxaki.

A letter was read from Sir George Simpson, expressing the desire
and intention of the agents of the Hudson's Bay Company to co-
operate with the Smithsonian Institution in procuring sj)ecimens of
natural history, and in the prosecution of scientific researches.

The Board then adjourned to meet on Saturday, 30th instant, at 11
o'clock, a. m.

SATUPvDAY, January 30, 1858.

The Board of Regents met this day in the hall of the Institution
at 11 o'clock a. m.

Present : Hon. J. C. Breckinridge, Vice President of the United
States, Hon. J. A. Pearce, Hon. J. M. Mason, Hon. S. A. Douglas,
Hon. W. H. English, Professor A. D. Bache, Professor C. C. Felton,
Mr. Seaton, Treasurer, and the Secretary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 79

The Vice President took the chair.

The minutes were then read and approved.

The minutes of the last meeting of the "Establishment" were read
for information, according to the by-laws of that body.

The Secretary stated to the Board the action of Congress at its last
session relative to the construction of cases in the Smithsonian
building for the gov^ernment collections, and also the decision of the
Attorney General respecting the law.

The Secretary then presented the annual report of the operations,
expenditures, and condition of the Institution during the year 1857 ;
which was read.

The Board then visited the rooms of the building, the collections,
&c., and adjourned.

Washington, April 10, 1858.

The Board of Regents met this day at 11 o'clock a. m.

Present: Hon. J. M. Mason, Hon. S. A. Douglas, Hon. George E.
Badger, Hon. Benj. Stanton, Hon. L. *J. Gartrell.

Mr. Mason was called to the chair.

The minutes were read and approved.

The report of the Building Committee for the year 1857 was read
and accepted.

The report of the Executive Committee was presented, together
with the estimates for the year 1858.

Communications relative to the care of the government collections,
the Wynn estate, the publications, investigations^ and other opera-
tions of the Institution, were read.

On motion of Mr. Badger, the Secretary was directed to have the
windows and other parts of the east wing of the building put in good
order.

The following report from Professor Felton was x)resented :

REPORT on the PRESENT OF MISS CONTAXAKI.

The Secretary laid before the Board a volume received from Greece,
and sent as a gift to the Smithsonian Institution, together with the
letter of the Hon. Mr. Spence, late United States minister to Con-
stantinople, to the Secretary of State, and the letter of the Hon. Lewis
Cass, the Secretary of State, to Professor Henry, the Secretary of the
Institution. The volume and the correspondence were referred to
Professor Felton.

The volume was transmitted from Athens, Greece, through Mr.

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

Spence. It was designed and executed by a Greek lady of rare liter-
ary accomplisliments, Miss Elizabeth B. Contaxaki, assisted by six
Greek gentlemen, resident in Athens. It contains sketches of the
principal ruins in that city, and views of the most famous historical
places there and in other parts of Greece, correctly drawn and deli-
cately colored, together with the passage, from the classic authors,
in which the objects and places are described or referred to, transla-
tions of the passages, and extracts from English and French writers
on the same subjects. The book is adorned with exquisitely drawn
vignettes, and emblematic devices, and with specimens of the wild
flowers which grow in the places described, carefully preserved,
pressed, and attached to the leaves. The volume is bound in blue
velvet, and tastefully decorated with silver. It is put in an elegantly
and richly carved case, made of olive wood, from the olive groves near
Athens, where stood, in ancient times, the academic groves of Plato's
school. The body of the case is made of the trunk of the tree, and
the ornamental portions, of the root, which is of darker and richer
color. This beautiful gift, t*herefore, combines a great variety of
objects, possessing, from their associations with the loftiest achieve-
ments of Hellenic genius, a deep and singular interest, and forming
a most appropriate memorial of the country from which European
art, education, philosophy, and letters took their rise.

Miss Contaxaki, the tasteful designer of this memorial_, is a native
of the island of Crete. At the time of the outbreak of the Greek
revolution, her father was a landed proprietor there, and, in common
with the great body of the Hellenic race, lost most of his property by
the rapacity and tyranny of the Turks. His family was dispersed,
and his daughter Elizabeth became an inmate in the family of the
Eev. Dr. John H. Hill, the American missionary, who established
himself in Athens, at the close of the war, for the benevolent and
enlightened purpose of aiding the Greeks to reconstruct the shattered
edifice of civilization, by establishing the school, which still continues
to dispense the blessings of education among the children of its first
pupils in that illustrious capital. Kesiding with Dr. Hill for many
years, and educated chiefly under his superintendence and care, Eliza-
beth became known to many American travellers in the East, by
whom she has often been mentioned with a cordial appreciation of her
accomplishments and merits. Their personal relations have naturally
inspired her with a warm interest in the United States, heightened
by the sympathies of the citizens of America in the regeneration of
her country, and the substantial aid furnished by them to Greece in

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 81

the hour of her utmost need. Kecently Miss Contaxaki, after a visit
to Constantinople, where she was received with distinction, has re-
turned to her native island, which is under the government of the
Pacha of Egypt, and, hy her learning and ability, has succeeded in
recovering, through the Moslem tribunal, a portion of her paternal
estate.

The volume now presented to the Smithsonian Institution was sent
to the great Paris Exhibition of 1855, where it excited much admira-
tion, and gained a diploma fur its accomplished author. She has
now transmitted it for permanent deposit among the treasures of the
Smithsonian Institution in the United States.

The Regents of the Institution accept the gift with great pleasure,
not only on account of its rare beauty, its intrinsic value, and the
many interesting associations it suggests with that famous city,
called by Milton "the eye of Greece, mother of art and arms," but
also as an expressive symbol of the hearty good will for the American
republic, cherished by the enlightened spirit of a nation which has so
honorably vindicated its right to the glories of an illustrious descent
by re-establishing the institutions of freedom and learning on the soil
where, in ancient times, they earliest flourished, and with unex-
ampled splendor.

The committee recommends the adoption of the following resolu-
tions by the Board :

Resolved, That the regents of the Smithsonian Institution ac-
cept, with gratitude, the splendid memorial volume presented by Miss
Elizabeth B. Contaxaki, and that they recognize, in the beauty, taste,
and art displayed in its general execution and style of its embellish-
ment, a pleasing indication that the genius which placed the ancient
Greeks at the head of the civilization of the world still survives in
their descendants.

Resolved^ That a copy of the above report, and of these resolutions, be
transmitted, with a letter of acknowledgment from the Smithsonian
Institution, to Miss Contaxaki, the accomplished donor.

On motion, the report was accepted and the resolutions adopted.

The Board then adjourned.

WEDNESDAY, Mat 19, 1858.

The Board met this day in the Vice President's room. United States
Capitol, at 9^ o'clock.

Present : The Chancellor, Hon. Roger B. Taney, Hon. John C.
Breckinridge, Vice President of the United States, Hon. J. M. Mason,
6s

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

Hon. J. A. Pearce, Hon. S. A. Douglas, Hon. W. H. English, Hon.
Benjamin Stanton, Prof. A. D. Bache, and the Secretary.

The minutes were read and approved.

Mr. Pearce explained the report of the Executive Committee and the
estimates for the year 1858, and, on motion, they were adopted.

The following report was presented from Prof. Felton, of the com-
mittee to whom was referred the communication of Mr. J. M. Stanley:

REPORT ON THE PROPOSITION TO PURCHASE THE INDIAN GALLERY.

N.

The Secretary laid before the Board a letter from Mr. J. M. Stanley,
painter of the gallery of Indian jjortraits, now on deposit with the
Smithsonian Institution, proposing to sell them to the Institution for
the sum of twelve thousand dollars.

The committee appointed to consider and report upon the subject
respectfully represent that, while they are fully sensible of the great
historical and ethnological value of this collection of portraits, and
of their characteristic excellence, they are yet of opinion that it
would be inexpedient to withdraw the sum mentioned from the funds
necessary to carry on the scheme of active operations, which has been
so ably inaugurated and, thus far, so successfully executed. The
income of the Smithsonian fund should not be scattered among differ-
ent and disconnected objects, and the sum necessary for the purchase
of the gallery cannot be spared, without crippling for a time, at least,
the regular operations of the Institution.

Among the Contributions to Knowledge several important works
relating to the aboriginal inhabitants of America have been published
by the Institution and circulated over the civilized world.

Grammars and dictionaries of the Indian languages may be men-
tioned as of special interest, and of great value to the science of com-
parative philology. Their language will probably pass away, and
the races speaking them disappear; but the works to which we allude
will preserve, ibr future investigators of the science of philology,
the characteristic form in which their thoughts were expressed^ and
will have an important bearing, not only on general ethnological
inquiries, but on the j)hilosophy of the human mind. These volumes
have been eagerly sought and studied by the most eminent compara-
tive philologists of Europe, and have, by universal consent^ contri-
buted materially to the increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men in that department of science.

But though your committee are of opinion that the purchase of this

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 83

gallery would interfere with the present plan of operations, and that
it would not so directly tend to the increase and diffusion of know-
ledge, they would earnestly express the opinion that, in a national
point of view, the value of these portraits can hardly be over-
estimated.

They represent forty-three different tribes, and are taken from the
leading personages in them. The artist has studied carefully the
peculiarities of the tribes, the characteristic expressions of the in-
dividuals, their natural attitudes and actions, their several styles of
costume and ornament, and has reproduced, with artistic skill, all these
particulars. To this interesting enterprise he has given ten of the
best years of his life, having traversed, with great labor and incon-
venience, the principal regions inhabited by the subjects of his pencil.
The number of portraits, including that of the artist, enumerated in
the catalogue, is one hundred and fifty-two. The price for which
they are offered is much below their real value, being less than $80
a piece. At the proposed rate the artist will receive no compensation
for his time and labor, and barely enough to defray the cost of material,
transportation, travelling expenses and insurance.

The number of the tribes represented so faithfully in this gallery,
and the prominence of the individuals, render the collection very
complete and satisfactory, as presenting a general view of the charac-
teristic features of the red man. These circumstances make it important
that the gallery should be preserved entire. Its peculiar value con-
sists in its comprehensive character no less than in the fidelity of the
individual details. Centuries hence, when most all of the tribes here
represented shall have disappeared, as the New England tribes, for
example, have nearly disappeared, this gallery will be an object of
.the profoundest interest to the student of man, the historian, the
philosopher, and the statesman.

The relations between the government o* the United States and the
Indian tribes form one of the most delicate and important subjects of
national legislation. The government has not only endeavored to
deal with the red men in a liberal and paternal spirit, but has done
much towards illustrating their character and condition by the pub-
lication of costly works embodying the observations and researches of
investigators who have devoted themselves to Indian studies. It
appears to your committee that to purchase this collection, and to
place it in some secure situation easy of access to visitors at the
capital, would be an act worthy of the enlightened liberality of Con-

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS,

gress. The cost would be insignificant, and the value of the collection
would increase in all future time. No place is so suitable for its
permanent deposit as the city of Washington, and no guardianship so
appropriate as that of the government of the United States.

Your committee recommend to the Board that the subject of the
purchase of Mr. Stanley's Indian gallery be brought respectfully to
the attention of Congress, as a measure eminently deserving a favor-
able consideration in its bearings upon the history of the aboriginal
tribes of America, and as a monument of deep and lasting interest to
the people of the United States.

The report was accepted, and laid on the table for the present.

The Secretary stated that Mr. Putnam having resigned the agency
of the Smithsonian publications in New York,[Messrs. D. Appleton &
Co. had been appointed his successors.

The Secretary announced that since the last meeting of the Board
the death of Dr. Egbert Hare, of Philadelphia, had occurred, who
was one of the principal benefactors of the Institution, and its first
honorary member.

Professor Bache gave an account of the life, character, and scientific
researches of Dr. Hare, and ofi'ered the following resolutions :

Besolvcd, That the Kegents of the Smithsonian Institution have
learned with deep regret the decease of one of the earliest and most
venerated honorary members of the establishment, Kobert Hare, M.D.,
of Philadelphia, late professor of chemistry in the University of
Pennsylvania.

liekolved, That the activity and power of mind of Dr. Hare, shown
through a long and successful career of physical research, the great
fertility of invention, the happy adaptations to matters of practical
life, and the successful grappling with questions of high theory in
physical science, have placed him among the first in his country of
the great contributors to knowledge, clarum et venerahile nom.en.

Befclved, That while we deplore the loss of this great and good
man, who has done so much to keep alive the flame of science in our
country in past days, we especially mourn the generous patron of our
Institution, the sympathizing friend of the youth of some of us, and
the warm-hearted colleague of our manhood.

Jiesolved, That we ofi'er to the bereaved family of Dr. Hare our
sincere condolence in the loss which they have sustained by his death.

The resolutions were adopted.

The report of the Secretary for 1857 was then accepted.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 85

Professor Felton, in behalf of the special committee to whom the
following communication of Professor Henry of March 16, 1857,
together with accompanying documents, &c., were referred, presentej^
a report.

COM.MUNICATION FROM PROF. HENRY, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION, RELATIVE TO A PUBLICATION BY PROF. MORSE.

Gentlemen : In the discharge of the important and responsible
duties which devolve upon me as Secretary ot the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, I have found myself exposed, like other men in public positions,
to unprovoked attack and injurious misrepresentation. Many instances
of this, it may be remembered, occurred about two years ago, during
the discussions relative to the organic policy of the Institution ; but,
though very unjust, they were suffered to pass unnoticed, and gene-
rally made, I presume, no lasting impression on the public mind.

During the same controversy, however, there was one attack made
upon me of such a nature, so elaborately prepared and widely circu-
lated, by my opponents, that, though I have not yet publicly noticed
H, 1 have from the first thought it my duty not to allow it to go un-
answered. I allu<le to an article in a periodical entitled " Shatfner's
Telegraph Companion," from the pen of Prof. S. F. B. Morse, the
celebrated inventor of the American electro-magnetic telegraph. In
this, not my scientific reputation merely, but my moral character was
pointedly assailed ; indeed, nothing less was attempted than to prove
that in the testimony which I had given in a case where I was at
most but a reluctant witness, I had consciously and wilfully deviated
from the truth, and this, too, from unworthy and dishonorable
motives.

Such a charge, coming from such a quarter, appeared to me then, as
it appears now, of too grave a character and too serious a consequence
to be withheld from the notice of the Board of Regents. I, therefore,
presented the matter unofficially to the Chancellor of the Institution,
Chief Justice Taney, and was advised by him to allow the matter to
rest until the then existing excitement with respect to the organiza-
tion of the Institution should subside, and that in the meantime the
materials for a refutation of the charge might be collected and pre-
pared, to be brought forw^ard at the proper time_, if I should think it
necessary.

The article of Mr. Morse was published in 1855, but at the session
of the Board in 1856 I was not prepared to present the case properly

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

to your consideration, and I now (1857) embrace the first opportunity
of bringing the subject officially to your notice, and asking from you
an investigation into the justice of the charges alleged against me.
And this I do most earnestly, with the desire that when we shall all
have passed from this stage of being, no imputation of having at-
tempted to evadein silence so grave a charge shall rest on me, nor on you,
of having continued to devolve upon me duties of the highest respon-
sibility, after that was known to some of you individually, which, if
true, should render me entirely unworthy of your confidence. Duty
to the Board of Regents, as well as regard to my own memory, to my
family, and to the truth of history, demands that I should lay thi^
matter before you, and place in your hands the documents necessary
to establish the veracity of my testimony, so falsely impeached, and
the integrity of my motives, so wantonly assailed.

My life, as is known to you, has been principally devoted to science,
and my investigations in different branches of physics have given me
some reputation in the line of original discovery. I have sought,
however, no patent for inventions, and solicited no remuneration for
my labors, but have freely given their results to the world, expecting
only, in return, to enjoy the consciousness of having added^ by my in-
yCstigations, to the sum of human knowledge^ and to receive the
credit to which they might justly entitle me.

I commenced my scientific career about the year 1828, with a series
of experiments in electricity, which were continued at intervals up to
the period of my being honored by election to the office of Secretary
of this Institution. The object of my researches was the advancement
of science, without any special or immediate reference to its applica-
tion to the wants of life or useful purposes in the arts. It is true, nev-
ertheless, that some of my earlier investigations had an important
bearing on the electro-magnetic telegraph, and brought the science to
that point of development at which it was immediately applicable to
Mr. Morse's particular invention.

In 1831 I published a brief account of these researches, in which I
drew attention to the fact of their applicability to the telegraph ; and
in 1832, and subsequently, exhibited experiments illustrative of the
application of the electro-magnet to the transmission of power to a
distance, for producing telegraphic and other effects. The results I
had published were communicated to Mr. Morse, by his scientific
assistant. Dr. Gale, as will be shown on the evidence of the latter ;
and the facts which I had discovered were promptly applied in render-
ing effective the operation of his machine.

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 87

In the latter part of 1837 I became personally acquainted with Mr.
Morse, and at that time, and afterwards, freely gave him information
in regard to the scientific principles which had been the subject of my
investigations. After his return from Europe, in 1839, our intercourse
was renewed, and continued uninterrupted till 1845. In that year,
Mr. Vail, a partner and assistant of Mr. Morse, published a work pur-
porting to be a history of the Telegraph, in which I conceived manifest
injustice was done me. I complained of this to a mutual friend, and
subsequently received an assurance from Mr. Morse that if another
edition were published, all just ground of complaint should be removed.
A new emission of the work, however, shortly afterwards appeared,
without change in this respect, or further reference to my labors. Still
I made no public complaint, and set up no claims on account of the
telegraph. I was content that my published researches should remain
as material for the history of science, and be pronounced upon, accord-
ing to their true value, by the scientific world.

After this, a series of controversies and lawsuits having arisen be-
tween rival claimants for telegraphic patents, I was repeatedly ap-
pealed to, to act as expert and witness in such cases. This I uniformly
declined to do, not wishing to be in any manner involved in these lit-
igations, but was finally compelled, under legal process, to return
to Boston from Maine, whither I had gone on a visit, and to give evi-
dence on the subject. My testimony was given with the statement that
I was not a willing witness, and that I labored under the disadvantage
of not having access to my notes and papers, which were in Washing-
ton. That testimony, however, I now reaffirm to be true in every
essential particular. It was unimpeached before the court, and exer-
cised an influence on the final decision of the question at issue.

I was called upon on that occasion to state, not only what I had pub-
lished, bat what I had done, and what I had shown to others in regard
to the telegraph. It was my wish, in every statement, to render Mr.
Morse full and scrupulous justice. While I was constrained, there-
fore, to state that he had made no discoveries in science, I distinctly
declared that he was entitled to the merit of .combining and applying
the discoveries of others, in the invention of the best practical form of
the magnetic telegraph. My testimony tended to establish the fact
that, though not entitled to the exclusive use of the electro-magnet for
telegraphic purposes, he was entitled to his particular machine, register,
alphabet, &c. As this, however, did not meet the full requirements of
Mr. Morse's comprehensive claim, I could not but be aware that, while

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

aimiug to depose nothing but truth and the whole truth, and while so
doing being obliged to speak of my own discoveries, and to allude to the
omissions in Mr. Vail's book, I might expose myself to the possible,
and, as it has proved, the actual, danger of having my motives mis-
construed and my testimony misrepresented. But I can truly aver, in
accordance w ith the statement of the counsel, Mr. Chase, (now governor
of Ohio,) that I had no desire to arrogate to myself undue merit, or to
detract from the just claims of Mr. Morse.

I have the honor to be your obedient servant,

JOSEPH HENEY.
To THE Board of Regents.

The Chancellor, Chief Justice Taney, corroborated Prof. Henry's
statement as to his advising a delay in noticing the publication re-
ferred to until the public mind should be more settled in regard to
the policy of the Institution, and the discussions which had arisen in
Congress in reference to it should be ended.

He stated that it would be seen by the report of the decision of the
Supreme Court, in the case in which Professor Henry was a witness,
that, in the opinion of the court. Professor Morse had produced no
testimony that could invalidate the testimony of Professor Henry, or
impair in any degree its weight, and gave full credit to it in the
udgment it pronounced.

REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS ON THE

COMMUNICATION OF PROFESSOR HENRY.

Professor Henry laid before the Board of Regents of the Smithso-
nian Institution a communication relative to an article in Shaffner's
Telegraph Companion, bearing the signature of Samuel F. B. Morse,
the inventor of the American electro-magnetic telegraph. In this
article serious charges are brought against Professor Henry, bearing
upon his scientific reputation and his moral character. The whole
matter having been referred to a committee of the Board, with in-
structions to report on the same, the committee have attended to the
duty assigned to them, and now submit the following brief report, with
resolutions accompanying it.

The committee have carefully examined the documents relating to
the subject, and es2)eciaUy the article to which the communication of
Professor Henry refers. This article occupies over ninety pages, filling
an entire number of Shaffner's Journal, and purports to be "a defence

PROCEEDINGS OF 7 HE EEGENT3. 89

against the injurious deductions drawn from the deposition of Professor
Joseph Henry, (in the several telegraph suits,) with a critical review
of said deposition, and an examination of Professor Henry's alleged
discoveries bearing upon the electro-magnetic telegraph."

The first thing which strikes the reader of this article is, that its
title is a misnomer. It is simply an assault upon Professor Henry ;
an attempt to disparage his character ; to deprive him of his honors
as a scientific discoverer ; to impeach his credibility as a witness and
his integrity as a man. It is a disingenuous piece of sophistical
argument, such as an unscrupulous advocate might employ to pervert
the truth, misrepresent the fiicts, and misinterpret the language in
which the facts belonging to the other side of the case are stated.

Mr. Morse charges that the deposition of Professor Henry *' con-
tains imputations against his (Morse's) personal character," which
it does not, and assumes it as a duty ''to expose the utter non-
reliability of Professor Henry's testimony;" that testimony being
supported by the most competent authorities, and by the history of
scientific discovery. He asserts that he "is not indebted to him
(Professor Henry) for any discovery in science bearing on the tele-
graph," he having himself acknowledged such indebtedness in the
most unequivocal manner, and the fact being independently substan-
tiated by the testimony of Sears C. Walker, and the statement of
Mr. Morse's own associate, Dr. Gale. Mr. Morse further maintains,
that all discoveries bearing upon the telegraph were made, not by
Professor Henry, but by others, and prior to any experiments of Pro-
fessor Henry in the science of electro-magnetism ; contradicting in
this proposition the facts in the history of scientific discovery perfectly
established and recognized throughout the scientific world.

The essence of the charges against Prof. Henry is, that he gave
false testimony in his deposition in the telegraph cases, and that he
has claimed the credit of discoveries in the sciences bearing upon the
electro-magnetic telegraph which were made by previous investigators ;
in other words, that he has falsely claimed what does not belong to
him, but does belong to others.

Professor Henry, as a private man, might safely have allowed such
charges to pass in silence. But standing in the important position
which he occupies, as the chief executive officer of the Smithsonian In-
stitution ; and regarding the charges as undoubtedly containing an
impeachment of his moral character, as well as of his scientific repu-
tation ; and justly sensitive, not only for his own honor, but for the
honor of the Institution, he has a right to ask this Board to consider

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

the subject, and to make their conclusions a matter of record, which
may be appealed to hereafter should any question arise with regard to
his conduct in the premises.

Your committee do not conceive it to be necessary to follow Mr.
Morse through all the details of his elaborate attack. Fortunately, a
plain statement of a few leading facts will be sufficient to place
the essential points of the case in a clear light.

The deposition already referred to was reluctantly given, and under
the compulsion of legal process, by Prof Henry, before the Hon. Geo.
S. Hillard, United States commissioner, on the 7th of September, 1849.

The following is the statement of the Hon. S. P. Chase, (now gov-
ernor of Ohio,) one of the counsel in the telegraph cases, in a letter
to Professor Henry, dated Columbus, Ohio, November 26, 1856 :

In the year 1849, 1 was professionally employed in the defence of
certain gentlemen engaged in the business of telegraphing between
Louisville and New Orleans, against whom a bill of complaint had
been filed in the Circuit Court of the United States for the district of
Kentucky. The object of the bill was to restrain the defendants, my
clients, from the use in telegraphing of a certain instrument called
the Columbian Telegraph, on the ground that it was an infringe-
ment upon the rights of the complainants under the patents granted
to Professor Morse. It therefore became my duty, in the preparation
of their defence, to ascertain the precise nature and extent of their
rights. With this view I called upon you, in August or September
of that year, for your deposition. It was taken before George S.
Hillard, esq., a United States commissioner for the district of Massa-
chusetts, in Boston. I remember very well that you were unwilling to
be involved in the controversy, even as a witness, and that you only
submitted to be examined in compliance with the requirements of law.
Not one of your statements was volunteered. They were all called out
by questions propounded either verbally or in writing. I was not suf-
ficiently familiar at the time with the precise merits of the case to
know what would or would not be important, and therefore insisted on
a full statement, not merely of the general history of electro-magnet-
ism as applied to telegraphing, but of all your own discoveries in
that science having relation to the same art, and of all that had passed
between yourself and Professor Morse connected with these discoveries
or with the telegraph. You could not have refused to respond to the
questions propounded, without subjecting yourself to judicial animad-
version and constraint. Nothing in what you testified, or your manner
of testifying, suggested to me the idea that you were animated by any
desire to arrogate undue merit to yourself, or to detract from the just
claims of Prolessor Morse.

S. P. CHASE.

Previous to this deposition, Mr. Morse, as appears from his own
letters and statements, entertained for Prof, Henry the warmest feel-
ings of personal regard, and the highest esteem for his character as a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 91

scientific man. In a letter, dated April 24, 1839, he thanks Prof.
Henry for a copy of his " valuable contributions," and says, " I per-
ceive many things (in the contributions) of great interest to me in my
telegraphic enterprise." Again, in the same letter, speaking of an
intended visit to the Professor at Princeton, he says : "I should come
as a learner, and could bring no ' contributions' to your stock of ex-
periments of any value." And still further : " I think that you have
pursued an original course of experiments, and discovered facts more
immediately bearing upon my invention than any that have been
published abroad."

It appears, from Mr. l^Iorse's own statement, that he had at least
two interviews with Prof. Henry — one in May, 1839, when he passed
the afternoon and night with him, at Princeton ; and another in Feb-
ruary, 1844 — both of them for the purpose of conferring with him on
subjects relating to the telegraph, and evidently with the conviction,
on Mr. Morse's part, that Prof. Henry's investigations were of great
importance to the success of the telegraph.

As late as 1846, after Mr. Morse had learned that some dissatisfac-
tion existed in Prof. Henry's mind in regard to the manner in which
his researches in electricity had been passed over by Mr. Vail, an
assistant of Mr. Morse, and the author of a history of the American
magnetic telegraph, Mr. Morse, in an interview with Prof. Henry, at
Washington, said, according to his own account, " Well, Prof. Henry,
I will take the earliest opportunity that is afforded me in anything I
may publish to have justice don^ to your labors ; for I do not think
that justice has been done you, either in Europe or this country."

Again^ in 1848, when Prof. Walker, of the Coast Survey, made
his report on the theory of Morse's electro-magnetic telegraph, in
which the expression occurred, "the helix of a soft iron magnet,
prepared after the manner first pointed out by Prof. Henry," Mr.
Morse, to whom the report way submitted, said: "I have now the
long wished for opportunity to do justice publicly to Henry's dis-
covery bearing on the telegraph." And in a note prepared by him,
and intended to be printed with Prof. Walker's report, he says :
" The allusion you make to the helix of a soft iron magnet, prepared
after the manner first pointed out by Prof. Henry, gives me an o])-
portunity, of which I gladly avail myself, to say that I think that
justice has not yet been done to Prof. Henry, either in Europe or in
this country, for the discovery of a scientific fact, which, in its bear-
ing on telegraphs, whether of the magnetic needle or electro-magnet
order, is of the greatest importance."

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

He then proceeds to give a historical synopsis^ showing that,
although suggestions had been made and plans devised by Soemmering,
in 1811, and by Ampere, in 1820, yet that the experiments of Barlow,
in 1824, had led that investigator to pronounce " the idea of an elec-
tric telegraph to be chimerical" — an opinion that was, for the time,
acquiesced in by scientific men. He shows that, in the interval be-
tween 1824 and 1829, no further suggestions were made on the sub-
ject of electric telegraphs. But he proceeds — '' In 1830, Prof. Henry,
assisted by Dr. Ten Eyck, while engaged in experiments on the ap-
plication of the principle of the galvanic multiplier to the development
of great magnetic power in soft iron, made the important discovery
that a battery of intensity overcame that resistance in a long wire
which Barlow had announced as an insuperable bar to the construc-
tion of electric telegraphs. Thus was opened the way for fresh efforts
in devising a practicable electric telegraph ; and Baron Schilling, in
1832, and Professors Gauss and Weber, in 1833, had ample oppor-
tunity to learn of Henry's discovery, and avail themselves of it, before
they constructed their needle telegraphs." And, while claiming for
himself that he was'" the first to propose the use of the electro-magnet
for telegraphic purposes, and the first to construct a telegraph on the
basis of the electro-magnet," yet he adds, " ^o Professor Henry is
unquestionably due the honor of the discovery of a principle which proves
the practicability of exciting magnetism through a long coil, or at a dis-
tance, either to deflect a needle or to magnetize soft iron."

What Mr. Morse here describes as "a principle," the discovery of

which is unquestionably due to Professor Henry, is the law which

first made it possible to work the telegraphic machine invented by

Mr. Morse, and for the knowledge of which Mr. Morse was indebted to

Professor Henry, as is positively asserted by his associate, Dr. GtALE.

This gentleman, in a letter, dated Washington, April 7, 1856, makes
the following conclusive statement :

Washington, D. C, April 7, 1856.
Sir : In reply to your note of the 3d instant, respecting the Morse
telegraph, asking me to state definitely the condition of the invention
when I first saw the apparatus in the winter of 1836, I answer: This
apparatus was Morse's original instrument, usually known as the type
a})paratus, in which the types, set up in a composing stick, were run
through a circuit breaker, and in which the battery was the cylinder
battery, with a single pair of plates. This arrangement also had another
peculiarity, namely, it was the electro-magnet used by Moll, and shown
in drawings of the older works on that subject, having only a few
turns of wire in the coil which surrounded the poles or arms of the
magnet. The sparseness of the wires in the magnet coils and the use

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 93

of the single cup battery were to me, on tlie first look at the instru-
ment, obvious marks of defect, and I accordingly suggested to the
Professor, without giving my reasons for so doing, that a battery of
many pairs should be substituted ior that of a single pair, and that
the coil on each arm of the masfnet should be increased to many hun-
dred turns each ; which experiment, if I remember aright, was made
on the same day with a battery and wire on hand, furnished I believe
by myself, and it was found that while the original arrangement
woukl only send the electric current through a few feec of wire, say
15 to 40, the modified arrangement would send it through as many
hundred. Although I gave no reasons at the time to Professor Morse
for the suggestions I had proposed in modifying the arrangement of
the machine, I did so afterwards, and referred in my explanations to
the paper of Professor Henry, in the 19th volume of the American
Journal of Science, ])age 400 and onward. It was to these sugges-
tions of mine that Professor Morse alludes in his testimony before
the circuit court for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, in the trial
of B. B. French and others vs. Rogers and others. — See piinted copy
of Complainant's Evidence, page 1G8, beginning with the words
"Early in 1836 I procured 40 feet of wire," &c., and page 169, where
Professor Morse alludes to myself and compensation for services ren-
dered to him, &G.

At the time I gave the suggestions above named, Professor Morse
was not familiar with the then existing state of the science ot electro-
magnetism. Had he been so, or had he read and appreciated the
paper of Henry, tlie suggestions made by me would naturally have
occurred to his mind as they did to my own. But the principal part
of Morse's great invention lay in the mechanical ada})tation of a power
to produce motion, and to increase or relax at will. It was only
necessary for him to know that such a power existed for him to adapt
mechanism to direct and control it.

My suggestions were made to Professor Morse from inferences
drawn by reading Professor Henry's paper above alluded to. Profes-
sor Morse professed great surprise at the contents of the paper when
I showed it to him, but especially at the remarks on Dr. Barlow's re-
sults respecting telegraphing, which were new to him, and he stated
at the time that he was not aware that any one had even conceived
the idea of using the magnet for such purposes.

With sentiments of esteem, I remain yours truly,

L. D. GALE.

Prof. Jos. Henry,

Sec/etary of the Smithsonian Institution.

It further appears, that principally for the information thus commu-
nicated Mr. Morse assigned to Dr. Gale an interest in the telegraph,
which he afterwards purchased back for $15,000, as appears from the
following letter of Dr. Gale :

Patent Office, August 5, 1857.

Dear Sir : In reply to yours of this date, respecting the interest I
once possessed in Morse's telegraph patent, secured to me by the said
Morse, as alluded to by him in his statement to the Commissioner of

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

Patents, I would simply state that the part I owned when I entered
the service of the government in this office was orginally given me hy
the said Morse for services rendered him in making his invention
practically effective in sending currents through long distances, &c.,
and that the said interest was retransferred to the said Morse for the
sum of fifteen thousand dollars.
Kespectfully,

L. D. GALE.
Professor Henry,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

It thus appears, both from Mr. Morse's own admission down to
1848^ and from the testimony of others most familiar with the facts,
that Professor Henry discovered the la,w, or " principle," as Mr. Morse
designates it, which was necessary to make the practical working of
the electro-magnetic telegraph at considerable distances possible; that
Mr. Morse was first informed of this discovery by Dr. Gale ; that he
availed himself of it at once, and that it never occurred to Mr. Morse
to deny this fact until after 1848. He had steadily and fully acknow-
ledged the merits and genius of Mr. Henry, as the discoverer of facts
and laws in science of the highest importance to the success of his
long-cherished invention of a magnetic telegraph, Mr. Henry was
the discoverer of a principle, Mr. Morse was the inventor of a machine,
the object of which was to record characters at a distance, to convey
intelligence, in other words, to carry into execution the idea of an
electric telegraph. But there were obstacles in tlie way which he
could not overcome until he learned the discoveries of Professor Henry,
and applied them to his machine. These facts are undeniable. They
constitute a part of the history of science and invention. They were
true in 1848, they were equally true in 1855, when Professor Morse's
article was published. We give a passage here from the deposition
of Sears C. Walker, in the case of French vs. Ptogers, Kespondent's
Evidence, page 199, bearing upon this whole subject :

"In consequence of some statements made by me in my official
reports relative to the invention of the receiving magnet, a question
arose between Mr. Morse and myself as to the origin of this invention.
It was amicably discussed by Mr. Morse, Professor Henry, Dr. Gale,
and myself, with Professor Henry's article, alluded to in answer to
the second question before us. The result of the interview was con-
clusive to my mind that Professor Henry was the sole discoverer of
the law on which the intensity magnet depends for its power of send-
ing the galvanic current through a long circuit. I was also led to
conclude that Mr. Morse, in the course of his own researches and ex-
periments before he had read Professor Henry's article, before alluded
to, had encountered the same difficulty Mr. Barlow and those who
preceded him had encountered, that is, the impossibility of forcing

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 95

the galvanic current throiigli a long telegraph line. His own per-
sonal researches had not overcome this obstacle. They were made in
the laboratory of the New York University. I also learned at the
same time, by the conversations above stated, that he only overcame
this obstacle by constructing a magnet on tlie principle invented by Pro-
fessor Henry, and described in his article in 8illiman's Journal. His
attention was directed to it by Dr. Gale."

What changed Mr. Morse's opinion of Professor Henry, not only
as a scientific investigator, but as a man of integrity, after the admis-
sions of his indebtedness to his researches, and the oft repeated ex-
pressions of warm personal regard ? It appears that Mr. Morse was
involved in a number of lawsuits, growing out of contested claims to
the right of using electricity for telegraphic purposes. The circum-
stances under which Professor Henry, as a well known investigator in
this department of physics, was summoned by one of the parties to
testify have already been stated. The testimony of Mr. Henry_, while
supporting the claims of Mr. Morse as the inventor of an admirable
invention, denied to him the additional merit of being a discoverer of
new facts or laws of nature, and to this extent, perhaps, was consid-
ered unfavorable to some part of the claim of Mr. Morse to an exclu-
sive right to employ the electro-magnet for telegraphic purposes.
Professor Henry's deposition consists of a series of answers to verbal,
as well as written, interrogatories propounded to him, which were not
limited to his published writings, or the subject of electricity, but ex-
tended to investigations and discoveries in general having a bearing
upon the electric telegraph. He gave his testimony at a distance
from his notes and manuscripts, and it would not have been surprising
if inaccuracies had occurred in some parts of his statement ; but all
the material points in it are sustained by independent testimony, and
that portion which relates directly to Mr. Morse agrees entirely with
the statement of his own assistant. Dr. Gale. Had his deposition
been objectionable, it ought to have been impeached before the Court ;
but this was not attempted ; and the following tribute to Professor
Henry by the judge, in delivering the opinion of the Supreme Court
of the United States, indicates the impression made upon the Court
itself by all the testimony in the case : " It is due to him to say that
no one has contributed more to enlarge the knowledge of electro-
magnetism, and to lay the foundations of the great invention of which
we are speaking, than the Professor himself."

Professor Henry's answers to the first and second interrogatories
present a condensed history of the progress of the science of electro-
magnetism, as connected with telegraphic communication, embracing

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

an account of the discoveries of Oersted, Arago, Davy, Ampere; of
the investigations hy Barlow and Sturgeon ; of his own researches,
commenced in 1828, and continued in 1829, 1830, and subsequently.
The details of his experiments and their results, though brief, are
very precise. There is abundant evidence to show that Professor
Henry's experiments and illustrations at Albany, and subsequently
at Princeton, proved, and were declared at the time by him to prove,
that the electric telegraph was now practicable ; that the electro-
magnet might be used to produce mechanical effects at a distance
adequate to making signals of various kinds, such as ringing bells,
which he practically illustrated. In proof of this, we quote a letter
to Professor Henry, from Professor James Hall, of Albany, late
president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science:

January 19, 1856.

Dear Sir: While a student of the Rensselaer School, in Troy,
New York, in August, 1832, I visited Albany with a friend, having
a letter of introduction to you from Professor Eaton. Our principal
object was to see your electro-magnetic apparatus, of which we had
heard much, and at the same time the library and collections of the
Albany Institute.

You showed us your laboratory in a lower story or basement of
the buikling, and in a larger room in an upper story some electric
and galvanic apparatus, with various philosophical instruments. In
this room, and extending around the same, was a circuit of wire
stretched along the wall, and at one termination of this, in the recesi.'.
of a window, a bell was fixed, while the other extremity was con-
nected with a galvanic apj)aratus.

You showed us the manner in which the bell could be made to ring
by a current of electricity, transmitted through this wire, and you
remarked that this method might be adopted for giving signals, by
the ringing of a bell at the distance of many miles from the point of
its connexion with the galvanic apparatus.

All the circumstances attending this visit to Albany are fresh in ray
recollection, and during the past years, while so much has been said
respecting the invention of electric telegraphs, I have olten had occa-
sion to mention the exhibition of your electric telegraph in the Albany
Academy, in 1832.

If at any time or under any circumstances this statement can be of
service to you in substantiating your claim to such a discovery at the
period named, you are at liberty to use it in any manner you jdease,
and I shall be ready at all times to repeat and sustain what I have
here stated, with many other attendant circumstances, should they
prove of any importance.

I remain very sincerely and respectfully yours,

JAMES HALL.

Professor Joseph Henry.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 97

In his deposition, Prof. Henry's statements are witliin what he
might fairly have claimed. But he is a man of science, looking for
no other reward than the consciousness of having done something for
its promotion, and the reputation which the successful prosecution of
scientific investigations and discoveries may justly be expected to give.
In his public lectures and published writings he has often pointed out
incidentally the possibility of applying the facts and laws of nature
discovered by him to practical purposes ; he has freely communicated
information to those who have sought it from him, among whom has
been Mr. Morse himself, as appears by his own acknowledgments.
But he has never applied his scientific discoveries to practical ends for
his own pecuniary benefit. It was natural, therefore, that he should
feel a repugnance to taking any part in the litigation between rival
inventors, and it was inevitable that, when forced to give his testi-
mony, he should distinctly point out what was so clear in his own
mind and is so fundamental a fact in the history of human progress,
the distinctive functions of the discoverer and the inventor who ap-
plies discoveries to practical purposes in the business of life.

Mr. Henry has always done full justice to the invention of Mr.
Morse. While he could not sanction the claim of Mr. Morse to the
exclusive use of the electro-magnet, he has given him full credit for
the mechanical contrivances adapted to the application of his invention.
In proof of this we refer to his deposition, and present also the following
statement of Hon. Charles Mason, Commissioner of Patents, taken
from a letter addressed by him to Prof. Henry, dated March 31, 1856:

U. S. Patent Office, 3Iarch 31, 1856.

Sir: Agreeably to your request I now make the following state-
ment:

Some two years since, when an application was made for an exten-
sion of Prof. Morse's patent, I was for some time in doubt as to the pro-
priety of making that extension. Under these circumstances I con-
sulted with several persons, and among others with yourself, with a
view particularly to ascertain the amount of invention fairly due to
Prof. Morse.

The result of my inquiries was such as to induce me to grant the
extension. I will further say that this was in accordance with your
express recommendation, and that I was probably more influenced by
this recommendation, and the information I obtained from you, than
by any other circumstance, in coming to that conclusion.
I am, sir, yours very respectfully,

CHAKLES MASON.

Prof. J. Henry.

To sum up the results of the preceding investigation in a few words

7s

98 , PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

We have shown that Mr. Morse himself has acknowledged the value
of the discoveries of Prof. Henry to his electric telegraph; that his
associate and scientific assistant, Dr. Grale, has distinctly affirmed that
these discoveries were applied to his telegraph, and that previous to
such application it was impossible for Mr. Morse to operate his instru-
ment at a distance; that Prof. Henry's experiments were witnessed
by Prof, Hall and others in 1832, and that these experiments showed
the possibility of transmitting to a distance a force capable of pro-
ducing mechanical effects adequate to making telegraphic signals ;
that Mr. Henry's deposition of 1849, which evidently furnished the
motive for Mr. Morse's attack upon him, is strictly correct in all the
historical details, and that, so far as it relates to Mr. Henry's own
claim as a discoverer, is within what he might have claimed with en-
tire justice; that he gave the deposition reluctantly, and in no spirit
of hostility to Mr. Morse ; that on that and other occasions he fully
admitted the merit of Mr. Morse as an inventor ; and that Mr. Morse's
patent was extended through the influence of the favorable opinion
expressed by Professor Henry.

Your committee come unhesitatingly to the conclusion that Mr.
Morse has failed to substantiate any one ot the charges he has made
against Prof. Plenry, although the burden of proof lay upon him ; and
that all the evidence, including the unbiased admissions of Mr. Morse
himself, is on the other side. Mr. Morse's charges not only remain
unproved but they are positively disproved.

Your committee recommend the adoption of the following resolu-
tions :

Resolved, That Professor Morse has not succeeded in refuting the
statements of Professor Henry in the deposition given by the latter in
1849; that he has not proved any one of the accusations against Prof.
Henry made in the article in Shaffner's Telegraph Companion in 1855,
and that he has not disproved any one of his own admissions in re-
gard to Prof. Henry's discoveries in electro-magnetism, and their im-
portance to his own invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph.

Resolved, That there is nothing in Professor Morse's article that di-
minishes, in the least, the confidence of this Board in the integrity of
Prof. Henry, or in the value of those great discoveries which have
placed his name among those of the most distinguished cultivators of
science, and have done much to exalt the scientific reputation of the
country.

Resolved, That this report, with the resolutions, be recorded in the
Proceedings of the Board of Kegents of the Institution.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE KE GENTS. 99

The report was accepted and the resolutions were unanimously
adopted. The Board then adjourned sine die.

APPENDIX TO THE REPOFvT OF THE COMMITTEE.

STATEMENT OF PROFESSOK HENRY IN RELATION TO THE HISTORY OF THE
ELECTRO MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.

In the beginning of ray deposition I was requested to give a sketch
of the history of electro-magnetism having a bearing on the telegraph,
and the account I then gave from memory I have since critically
examined and find it fully corroborated by reference to the original
authorities. My sketch, which was the substance of what I had been
in the habit of giving in my lectures, was necessarily very concise, and
almost exclusively confined to one class of facts, namely, those having
a direct bearing on Mr. Morse's invention, and my paper in Silliman's
Journal was likewise very brief and intended merely for scientific
men. In order, therefore, to set forth more clearly in what my own
improvements consisted it may be proper to give a few additional
particulars respecting some points in the progress of discovery, illus-
trated by wood cuts.

There are several forms of the electrical telegraph : first, that in
which frictional electricity has been proposed to j)roduce sparks and
■ motion of pith balls at a distance.

Second, that in which galvanism has been employed to produce
; signals by means of bubbles of gas from the decomposition of water.

Third, that in which electro-magnetism is the motive power to
produce motion at a distance; and again, of the latter there are two
i kinds of telegraph, those in which the intelligence is indicated by the
motion of a magnetic needle, and those in which sounds and per-
manent signs are made by the attraction of an electro-magnet. The'
latter is the class to which Mr. Morse's invention belongs. The fol-
lowing is a brief exposition of the several steps which led to this- form
of the telegraph.

The first essential fact, as I stated in my testimony, which ren-
dered the electro-magnetic telegraph possible was discovered by
Oersted, in the winter of 1819-'20. It is illustrated by figure 1, in:
which the magnetic ^'s- 1.

needle is deflected by ^

the action of a cur-
rent of galvanism
transmitted through

the wire A B. (See Annals of Philosophy, vol. 16, page 273.)

A *■

100 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS,

1

The second fact of importance, discovered in 1820, by Arago and
^'^•^* Davy, is illustrated in

figure 2. It consists
in this, that while a
current of galvanism is
passing through a cop-
per wire A B, it is
magnetic, it attracts iron filings and not those of copper or brass, and
is capable of developing magnetism in soft iron. (See Annales de
Chimie, vol. 15, page 94.)

The next important discovery, also made in IKIO, by Ampere, was

that two wires through which galvanic currents are passing in the

same direction attract, and in opposite direction repel, each other.

On this fact Ampere founded his celebrated theory, that magnetism

onsists merely in the attraction of electrical currents revolving at

right angles to the line joining the two poles of the magnet. The

magnetisation of a bar of steel or iron, according to this theory, con-

..■sists in establishing within the metal by induction a series of electrical

.. ©urrents, all revolving in the same direction at right angles to the

axis or length of the bar. (See Annales de Chimie, vol. 15, page 69.)

It was this theory which led Arago, as he states, to adopt the method

, of magnetizing sewing needles and pieces of steel wire, shown in

Fig. 3. figure 3. This method

tricity through a helix
surrounding the needle or wire to be magnetized. For the
purpose of insulation the needle was inclosed in a glass tube, and the
several turns of the helix were at a distance from each other to insure
the passage of electricity, through the whole length of the wire, or, in
other words, to prevent it from seeking a shorter passage by cutting
across from one spire to another. The helix employed by Arago
obviously approximates the arrangement required by the theory of
Ampere, in order to develop by induction the magnetism of the iron.
By an attentive perusal of the original account of the experiments of
Arago, given in the Annales de Chimie et Physique, vol. XV, 1820,
page 93, it will be seen that, properly speaking, he made no electro-
magnet, as has been asserted by Morse and others ; his experiments
wer*e confined to the magnetism of iron filings, to sewing needles and
pieces of steel wire of the diameter of a millimetre, or of about the
thickness of a small knitting needle. (See Annales de Chimie, vol.
15, page 95.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS. 101

Mr. Sturgeon, in 1825, made an important step in advance of the
experiments of Arago, and produced what is properly known as the
electro-magnet. He bent a piece of iron loire into the form of a horse-
shoe, covered it with varnish to insulate it, and surrounded it with a
helix, of which the spires were at a distance. When a current of
galvanism was passed through the helix from a small battery of a
single cup the iron wire became magnetic, and continued so during
the passage of the current. When the current was interrupted the
magnetism disappeared^ and thus was produced the first temporary
soft iron magnet.

The electro-magnet of Sturgeon is shown pig.4,

in figure 4, which is an exact copy from the
drawing in the Transactions of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., vol.
XLIII. By comparing figures 3 and 4
it will be seen that the helix employed
by Sturgeon was of the same kind as that
used by Arago ; instead, however, of b
straight steel wire inclosed in a tube of

glass, the former employed a bent wire of soft iron. The difference
in the arrangement at first sight might appear to be small, but the
difference in the results produced was important, since the temporary
magnetism developed in the arrangement of Sturgeon was sufficient
to support a weight of several pounds, and an instrument was thus
produced of value in future research.

The next improvement was made by myself. After reading an
account of the galvanometer of Schweigger, the idea occurred to me that
a much nearer approximation to the requirements of the theory of
Ampere could be attained by insulating the conducting wire itself,
instead of the rod to be magnetized, and by covering the whole sur-
face of the iron with a series of coils in close contact. This was
effected by insulating a long wire with silk thread, and winding this
around the rod of iron in close coils from one end to the other. The
same principle was extended by employing a still Fig. 5.

longer insulated wire, and winding several strata
of this over the first, care being taken to insure
the insulation between each stratum by a cover--
ing of silk ribbon. By this arrangement the rod
was surrounded by a compound helix formed of a
long wire of many coils, instead of a single helix
of a few coils, (figure 5.)

102 PEOCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

In the arrangement of Arago and Sturgeon the several turns of
wire were not precisely at right angles to the axis of the rod, as they
should he^ to produce the effect required by the theory, but slightly
oblique, and therefore each tended to develop a separate magnetism
not coincident with the axis of the bar. But in winding the wire
over itself the obliquity of the several turns compensated each
other, and the resultant action was at right angles to the bar. The
arrangement then introduced by myself was superior to those of
Arago and Sturgeon, first in the greater multiplicity of turns of wire,
and second in the better application of these turns to the development
of magnetism. The power of the instrument, with the same amount
of galvanic force, was by this arrangement several times increased.
The maximum effect, however, with this arrangement and a single
battery was not yet obtained. After a certain length of wire had
been coiled upon the iron the power diminished with a further in-
crease of the number of turns. This was due to the increased resist-
ance which the longer wire offered to the conduction of electricity.
Two methods of improvement therefore suggested themselves. The
first consisted, not in increasing the length of the coil, bul in using
a number of separate coils on the same piece of iron. By this ar-
rangement the resistance to the conduction of the electricity was
diminished and a greater quantity made to circulate around the iron
from the same battery. The second method of producing a similar
result consisted in increasing the number of elements of the battery,
or, in other words, the projectile force of the electricity, which enabled
it to pass through an increased number of turns of wire, and thus,
by increasing the length of the wire, to develop
the maximum power of the iron.

To test these principles on a larger scale the
experimental magnet was constructed, which is
shown in figure 6. In this a number of com-
pound helices were placed on the same bar, their
ends left projecting, and so numbered that they
could be all united into one long helix, or va-
riously combined in sets of lessser length.

From a series of experiments with this and other magnets it was
proved that, in order to produce the greatest amount of magnetism
from a battery of a single cup, a number of helices is required ; but
when a compound battery is used then one long wire must be em-
ployed, making many turns around the iron, the length of wire and

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS, 103

consequently the number of turns being commensurate with the pro-
jectile power of the battery.

In describing tbe results of my experiments the terms intensiiij and
quantity magnets were introduced to avoid circumlocution, and were
intended to be used merely in a technical sense. By the intensity
magnet I designated a piece of soft iron, so surrounded with wire
that its magnetic power could be called into operation by an intensity
battery, and by a quantity magnet, a piece of iron so surrounded by a
number of separate coils that its magnetism could be fully developed
by a quantity battery.

I was the first to point out this connexion of the two kinds of
the battery with the two forms of the magnet in my paper in Silli-
man's Journal, January 1831, and clearly to state that when mag-
netism was to be developed by means of a compound battery, one long
coil was to be employed, and when the maximum effect was to be pro-
duced by a single battery, a number of single strands were to be used.

These steps in the advance of electro-magnetism though sraall^ were
such as to interest and astonish the scientific world. With the same
^attery used by Mr. Sturgeon, at least a hundred times more mag-
netism was produced than could have been obtained by his experiment.
The developments were considered at the time of much importance
in a scientific point of view, and they subsequently furnished the means
by which magneto-electricity, the phenomena of dia-magnetism, and
the magnetic efiects on polarized light were discovered. They gave
rise to the various forms of electro-magnetic machines which have
since exercised the ingenuity of inventors in every part of the world,
and were of immediate applicability in the introduction of the magnet
to telegraphic purposes. Neither the electro-magnet of Sturgeon nor
any electro-magnet ever made previous to my investigations wag
applicable to transmitting power to a distance.

The principles I have developed were properly appreciated by the
scientific mind of Dr. Gale, and applied by him to operate Mr. Morse's
machine at a distance.

Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism
in soft iron were imperfectly understood. The electro-magnet made
by Sturgeon, and copied by Dana, of New York, was an imperfect
quantity magnet, the feeble power of which was developed by a single
battery. It was entirely inapplicable to a long circuit with an inten-
sity battery, and no person possessing the requisite scientific know-

104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS

ledge would have attempted to use it in that connexion after reading
my paper.

In sending a message to a distance two circuits are employed, the
first a long circuit through which the electricity is sent to the distant
station to bring into action the second, a short one, in which is the
local battery and magnet for working the machine. In order to give
projectile force sufficient to send the power to a distance, it is neces-
sary to use an intensity battery in the long circuit, and in connexion
with this, at the distant station, a magnet surrounded with many
turns of one long wire must be employed to receive and multiply the
efiect of the current enfeebled by its transmission through the long
conductor. In the local or short circuit either an intensity or a quan-
tity magnet may be employed. If the fi.rst be used^ then with it a
compound battery will be required ; and, therefore, on account of the
increased resistance due to the greater quantity of acid, a less amount
of work will be performed by a given amount of material ; and, con-
sequently, though this arrangement is practicable it is by no means
economical. In my original paper I state that the advantages of a
greater conducting power, from using several wires in the quantity
magnet, may, in a less degree, be obtained by substituting for them one
large wire ; but in this case, on account of the greater obliquity of
the spires and other causes, the magnetic effect would be less. In
accordance with these principles, the receiving magnet, or that which
is introduced into the long circuit, consists of a horse-shoe magnet
surrounded with many hundred turns of a single long wire, and is
operated with a battery of from 12 to 24 elements or more, while in
the local circuit it is customary to employ a battery of one or two
elements with a much thicker wire and fewer turns.

It will, I think, be evident to the impartial reader that these were
improvements in the electro-magnet which first rendered it adequate
to the transmission of mechanical power to a distance ; and had I
omitted all allusion to the telegraph in my paper, the conscientious
historian of science would have awarded me some credit, however
small might have been the advance which I made. Arago and Stur-
geon, in the accounts of their experiments, make no mention of the tel-
egraph, and yet their names always have been and will be associated
with the invention. I briefly, however, called attention to the fact of
the ap[)licability of my experiments to the construction of the tele-
graph ; but not being familiar with the history of the attempts made
in regard to this invention, I called it "Barlow's project," while I ought
to have stated that Mr. Barlow's investigation merely tended to dis-
prove the possibility of a telegraph.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 105

I did not refer exclusively to the needle telegraph when, in my
paper, I stated that the magnetic action of a current from a trough is at
least not sensibly diminished by passing through a long wire. This
is evident from the fact that the immediate experiment from which
this deduction was made was by means of an electro-magnet and not
by means of a needle galvanometer.

At the conclusion of the series of experiments which I described in
Silliman's Journal, there were two applications of the electro-magnet
in my mind : one the production of a machine to be moved by electro-
magnetism, and the other the transmission of or calling into action
power at a distance. The first was carried into execution in the con-
struction of the machine described in Silliman's Journal, vol. 20, 1831,
and for the purpose of experimenting in regard to the second, I ar-
ranged around one of the upper rooms in the Albany Academy a
wire of more than a mile in length, through which I was enabled to
make signals by sounding a bell, (fig. ^^- '•

7.) The mechanical arrangement for
afiecting this object was simply a
steel bar, permanently magnetized, of
about ten inches in length, supported
on a pivot and placed with its north
end between the two arms of a horse-
shoe magnet. When the latter was
excited by the current, the end of the
bar thus placed was attracted by one
arm of the borse-shoe, and repelled
by the other, and was thus caused to

move in a horizontal plane and its further extremity to strike a bell
suitably adjusted.

This arrangement is that which is alluded to in Professor Hall's
letter* as having been exhibited to him in 1832 It was not, however,
at that time connected with the long wire above mentioned, but with
a shorter one put up around the room for exhibition.

At the time of giving my testimony, I was uncertain as to when I
had first exhibited this contrivance, but have since definitely settled
the fact by the testimony of Hall and others that it was before I left
Albany, and abundant evidence can be brought to show that previous
to my going to Princeton in November, 1832, my mind was much
occupied with the subject of the telegraph, and that I introduced it in
my course of instruction to the senior class in the Academy, I should

* See the Report of the Committee, page 96, and Proceedings of the Albany Institute,
anuary, 1858.

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

state, however, that the arrangement that I have described was merely
a temporary one, and that I had no idea at the time of abandoning
my researches for the practical application of the telegraph. Indeed,
my experiments on the transmission of power to a distance were super-
seded by the investigation of the remarkable phenomena, which I had
discovered in the course of these experiments, of the induction of a
current in a long wire on itself, and of which I made the first mention
in a paper in Silliman's Journal in 1832, vol. 22.

I also devised a method of breaking a circuit, and thereby causing a
large weight to fall. It was intended to illustrate the practicabihty of
calling into action a great power at a distance capable of producing
mechanical effects ; but as a description of this was not printed, I do
not place it in the same category with the experiments of which I
published an account, or the facts which could be immediately de-
duced from my papers in Silliman's Journal.

From a careful investigation of the history of electro-magnetism
in its connexion with the telegraph, the following facts may be es-
tablished :

1. Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism
in soft iron were imperfectly understood, and the electro-magnet
which then existed was inapplicable to the transmission of power to a
distance.

2. I was the first to prove by actual experiment that, in order to
develop magnetic power at a distance, a galvanic battery of intensity
must be employed to project the current through the long conductor,
and that a magnet surrounded by many turns of one long wire must be
used to receive this current.

3 I was the first actually to magnetize a piece of iron at a distance,
and to call attention to the fact of the applicability of my experiments
to the telegraph.

4. I was the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of
the electro- magnet.

5. The principles I had developed were applied by Dr. Gale to
render Morse's machine effective at a distance.

The results here given were among my earliest experiments ; in a
Bcientific point of view I considered them of much less importance
than what I subsequently accomplished ; and had I not been called
upon to give my testimony in regard to them, I would have suffered
them to remain without calling public attention to them, a part of the
history of science to be judged of by scientific men who are the best
qualified to pronounce upon their merits.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 107

DEPOSITION OF JOSEPH HENRY, IN THE CASE OF
MORSE vs. O'REILLY,

TAKEN AT BOSTON, SEPTEMBER, 1849.

[From the Record of the Supreme Court of the United States '\

1. Please state your place of residence and your occupation ; also,
what attention, if any, you ha/e given to the subjects of electricity,
magnetism, and electro-magnetism.

Answer. — I begin tliis deposition with the express statement that I
do not voluntarily give my testimony ; but that I appear on legal
summons, and in submission to law. I am Secretary to the Smith-
sonian Institution^ established in the city of Washington, where I
now reside. The principal direction of the Institution is confided to
me. As I do not expect to return to Washington until some time in
October, I have been called upon to give my testimony here in Boston;
on this account I labor under the disadvantage of being obliged to
testily without my notes and papers, which are now in Washington.

I commenced the study of electro-magnetism in 1827 ; and since then
have, at different times, [until] within the last two and a half years,
when I became Secietary of the Smithsonian Institution, made original
investigations in this and kindred branches of physical science. I know
no person in our country who has paid more attention to the study of
the principles of electro-magnetism than myself.

2. Please give a general account of the progress of the science of
electro magnetism, as connected with telegraphic communication ; and
of any inventions or discoveries in electro-magnetism applicable to
the telegraph, made by yourself.

Ansioer. — I consider an electromagnetic telegraph as one v^^hich
operates by the combined influence of electricity and magnetism. Prior
to tUe winter of 181'J-'20, no form of the electro-magnetic telegraph
was possible ; the scientific principles on which it is founded were
then unknown. The first fact of electro-magnetism was discovered
by Oersted, of Copenhagen, during that winter. It is this : A wire
being placed close above, or below, and parallel to a magnetic needle,
and a galvanic current being transmitted through the wire, the needle
will tend to place itself at right ana:les to it. This fact was widely
published, and the account was everywhere received with interest.

The second fact of importance was discovered independently, and
about the same time, by Arago, at Paris, and Davy, at London. It
is this : During the transmission of a galvanic current through a wire
of copper, or any other metal, the wire exhibits magnetic properties,
attracting iron, but not copper filings, and having the power of in-
ducing permanent magnetism in steel needles. The next important
fact was discovered by Ampere, of Paris, one of the most sagacious
and successful cultivators of physical science in the present century.
It is this : Two parallel wires through which galvanic currents are
passing ia. the same direction, attract each olher ; but if the currents

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

pass in opposite directions, they repel each other. On this fact
Ampere founded his ingenious theory of magnetism and electro-mag-
netism. According to this thejry, all magnetic phenomena result
from the attraction or repulsion of electric currents, supposed to exist
in the iron at right angles to the length of the bar ; and that all the
phenomena of magnetism and electro magnetism are thus referred to
one principle, namely, the action of electrical currents on each other.

Ampere deduced from this theory many interesting results, which
were afterwards verified by experiment. He also proposed to the
French Academy a plan for the application of electro-magnetism to
the transmission of intelligence to a distance ; this consisted in de-
flecting a number of needles at the place of receiving intelligence, by
galvanic currents transmitted through long wires. This transmission
was to be effected by completing a galvanic circuit. When completed,
the needle was deflected. When interrupted, it returned to its ordi-
nary position, under the influence of the attraction of the earth. This
project of Ampere was never reduced to practice. All these discoveries
and results were prior to 1823.

The next investigations relating to the magnetic telegraph were
published in 1825 ; they were by Mr. Barlow, of the Royal Military
Academy of Woolwich, England. He found that there was great
diminution in the power of the galvanic current to produce effects
with an increase of distance; a diminution so great in a distance of
two hundred feet was observed, as to convince him of the impractica-
bility of the scheme of the electro-magnetic telegraph. His experi-
ments led him to conclude that the power was inversely as the
square root of the length of the wire. The publication of these
results put at rest, for a time, all attempts to construct an electro-
magnetic telegraph.

The next investigations, in the order of time, bearing on the tele-
graph, were made by Mr. Sturgeon, of England. He bent a piece of
iron wire into the form of a horse-shoe, and put loosely around it a
coil of copper wire, with wide intervals between the turns or spires
to prevent them touching each other, and through this coil he trans-
mitted a current of galvanism. The iron, under the influence of this
current, became magnetic, and thus was produced the first electro-
magnetic magnet, sometimes called simply the electro-magnet. An
account of this experiment was first published in November, 1825, in
the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts in
England ; and was made known in this country through the Annals
of Philosophy for November, 1826.

Nothing further was done pertaining to the telegraph until my
own researches in electro-magnetism, which were commenced in 1828,
and continued in 1829, 1830, and subsequently ; Barlow's results, as
I before observed, had prevented all attempts to construct a magnetic
telegraph on the plan of Ampere, and our own knowledge of the de-
velopment' of magnetism in soft iron, as left by Sturgeon, was not
such as to be applicable to telegraphic purposes. The electro-magnet
of Sturgeon could not be made to act by a current through a long
wire, as will be apparent hereafter in this deposition.

After repeating the experiments of Oersted, Ampere, and others,
and publishing an account in IBzS of various modifications of electro-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 109

maojnetic apparatus, I commenced in that year the investigation of
the laws of the development of magnetism in soft iron, by means of
the electrical current. The first idea that occurred to me in accord-
ance with the theory of Ampere, with reference to increasing the
power of the electro-magnet, was that of using a longer wire than
had before been employed. A wire of sixty feet in length, covered
with silk, was wound round a whole length of an iron bar, either
straight or in the form of a U, so as to cover its whole length with
several thicknesses of the wire.

The results of this arrangement were such as I had anticipated,
and electro-magnets of this kind, exhibited to the Albany Institute
in March, 1829, possessed magnetic power superior to that of any
before known.

The idea afterwards occurred to me that the quantity of galvanism,
supplied by a small galvanic battery, might be applied to develop a
still greater amount of magnetic power in a large bar of iron. On
experiment, I found this idea correct. A battery of two and a half
square inches of zinc, developed magnetism in a large bar sufficient to
lift fourteen pounds.

The next suggestion which occurred to me was that of using a
number of wires of the same length around the same bar, so as to
lessen the resistance which the galvanic current experienced in pass-
ing from the zinc to the copper through the coil. To bring this to
the test of experiment, a second wire, equal in length to the first,
was wound around the last mentioned magnet, and its ends soldered
to the plates of the same battery.

The magnet with this additional wire lifted twenty-eight pounds,
or, in other words, its power was doubled.

A series of experiments was afterwards made, to determine the re-
sistance to conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, and
the proper lengths and number of wires for producing, with different
kinds of galvanic batteries, the maximum of amount of magnetic de-
velopment with a given quantity of zinc surface. For this purpose a
bar of soft iron, two inches square and twenty inches long, weighing
twenty-one pounds, and much larger than any before used, was bent
in the form of a horse-shoe. Around this were wound nine strands
of copper wire, each sixty feet long, the ends left projecting so that
one or more coils could be used at once, either connected with a bat-
tery or with each other, thus forming several coils with several battery
connexions, or one long coil with single battery connexions. The
greatest effect obtained with this magnet, using a battery of a single
pair, with a zinc plate of two-fifths of a square foot of surface, and all
the wire arranged as separate coils, was to lift a weight of six hun-
dred and fifty pounds ; with a large battery the effect was increased
to seven hundred and fifty pounds. In a subsequent series of experi-
ments, not published with the preceding, the same magnet was made
to sustain one thousand pounds. When a compound battery was
employed of a number of pairs, it was found that the greatest effect
was produced when all the wires were arranged as a single long coil.
I subsequently constructed electro-magnets on the same plan, which
supported much greater weights. One of these, now in the cabinet
of Princeton, will sustain three thousand six hundred pounds with a

110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE EEGENTS.

battery occupying about a cubic foot of space. It consists of tbirty
strands of wire, each about forty feet in length.

The abovementioned experiments exhibit the important fact that
when a galvanic battery of intensity (that is to say, a battery con-
sisting of a number of pairs) is employed, the electro-magnet con-
nected with it must be wound with one long wire, in order to produce
the greatest effect ; and that when a battery of quantity, (that is, one
of a single pair,) is employed, the proper form of the magnet con-
nected with it is that in which several shorter wires are w^ound around
the iron. The first of these magnets, which is the one now employed
in the long or main circuit of the telegraph, may be called an intensity
magnet ; and the second, which is used in the local circuit, may be
denominated the quantity.

The quantity of electricity which can be passed through a long
circuit of ordinary-sized wire is, under the most favorable circum-
stances, exceedingly small, and in order that this may develop mag-
netism in a bar of iron, it was necessary that it should be made to
revolve many times around the iron, that its effects may be multiplied ;
and this is effected by using along single coil. Hence it will be seen
that the electro-magnet of Mr. Sturgeon was not applicable to tele-
graphic purposes in a long circuit.

Previous to making the last experiments abovementioned, in order
to guide myself, I instituted a series of preliminary experiments on
the conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, with dif-
ferent batteries. In these experiments a galvanometer, or aa instru-
ment consisting of a magnetic needle freely suspended within a coil
of wire, was first employed to denote, by the deflectioa of its needle,
the power of the current. The result from a number of experiments,
with a battery of a single pair, was the same as that obtained by
Barlow, namely, tbat the power diminished rapidly with the increase
of distance With the same battery, and a larger wire, the diminution
was less. The galvanometer was next removed, and a small electro-
magnet subslituttd in its place. With a single battery, the same
result was again obtained — a great diminution of lifting power with
the increase of distance. After this the battery of a single pair was
removed and its place supi)lied by one ot intensity, consisting of
twenty-five pairs. With this the important fact was observed^ that
no perceptible diminution of the lifting power took place, when the
current was transmitted through an intervening wire between the
battery and the magnet of upwards of one thousand feet.

This was the first discovery of the fact that a galvanic current
could be transmitted to a great distance with so little a diminution of
force as to produce mechanical effects, and of the means by which the
transmission could be accomplished. I saw that the electric tele-
graph was now practicable ; and, in publishing my experimenis and
their results, I stated that the fact just mentioned was applicable to
Barlow's project of such a telegraph. I had not the paper ot Barlow
before me, and erred in attributing to him a project of a telegraph, as
he only disproved, as he thought, the practicability of one. But the
intention of the statement was to show that I had established the fact
that a mechanical effect could be produced by the galvanic current at

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. Ill

a great distance, operating upon a magnet or needle, and that the
telegraph was therefore possible. In arriving at these results, and
announcing their applicability to the telegraph, I had not in mind
any particular form of telegraph, but referred only to the general fact
that it was now demonstrated that a galvanic current could be trans-
mitted to great distances with sufficient power to produce mechanical
effects adequate to the desired object.

The investigations above mentioned were all devised and originated,
and the experiments planned, by myself. In conducting the latter,
however, I was assisied by Dr. Philip Ten Eyck, of Albany. An
account of the whole was published in the 19th volume of Silliman's
Journal, in 1831, with the exception of the account of the large
magnet afterwards constructed at Princeton in 1833, and the experi-
ment mentioned of lifting a thousand pounds with one of my first
magnets. While I was engaged in these researches. Prof. Moll, of
the University of Utrecht, was pursuing investigations somewhat
similar, and succeeded in making powerful electro-magnets, but made
no discovery as to the distinction between the two kinds of magnets,
or the transmissibility of the galvanic current to a great distance with
power to produce mechanical effects. In fact, his experiments were
but a repetition on a large scale of those of Sturgeon.

After completing the investigations abovementioned, I commenced
a series of experiments on another branch of electricity closely con-
nected with this subject. Among other things, I applied the princi-
ples above mentioned to the construction of an electro-magnetic
machine, which has since excited much attention in reference to the
application of electro-magnetism as a motive power in the arts.

In 1832 I was called to the chair of natural philosophy in the
College of New Jersey, at Princeton, and in my first course of lectures -
in that institution, in 1833, and in every subsequent year during my
connexion with that institution, I mentioned the project of the electro-
magnetic telegraph, and explained how the electro-magnet might be
used to produce mechanical effects at a distance adequate to making
signals of various kinds. I never myself attempted to reduce these
principles to practice, or to apply any of my discoveries to processes
in the arts. My whole attention, exclusive of my duties to the college,
was devoted to original scientific investigations, and I left to others
what I considered in a scientific view of subordinate importance the
application of my discoveries to useful purposes in the arts. Besides
this, I partook of the feeling common to men of science, which disin-
clines them to secure to themselves the advantages of their discoveries
by a patent.

In February, 1837, I went to Europe ; and early in April of that
year Prof. Wheatstone, of Loudon, in the course of a visit to him in
King's College, London, with Prof. Bacne, now of the Coast Survey,
explained to us his plans of an electro-magnetic telegraph ; and^ among
other things, exhibited to us his method of bringing into action a
second galvanic circuit. This consisted in closing the second circuit
by the deflection of a needle, so placed that the two ends projecting
upwards, of the open circuit, would be united by the contact of the
ond of the needle when deflected, and on opening or breaking of the

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

circuit so closed by opening the first circuit, and thus interrupting the
current, when the needle would resume its ordinary position under
the inflaence of the magnetism of the earth. I informed him that I
had devised another method of producing effects somewhat similar.
This consisted in opening the circuit of my large quantity magnet at
Princeton, when loaded with many hundred pounds weight, by at-
tracting upward a small piece of moveable wire, with a small intensity
magnet, connected with a long wire circuit. When the circuit of the
large battery was thus broken by an action from a distance, the
weights would fall, and great mechanical effect could thus be pro-
duced, such as the ringing of church bells at a distance of a hundred
miles or more, an illustration which I had previously given to my
class at Princeton. My impression is strong, that I had explained
the precise process to my class before I went to Europe, but testifying
now without the opportunity of reference to my notes, I cannot speak
positively. I am, however, certain of having mentioned in my lectures
every year previously, at Princeton, the project of ringing bells at a
distance, by the use of the electro-magnet, and of having frequently
illustrated the principle of transmitting power to a distance to my
class, by causing in some cases a thousand pounds to fall on the floor,
by merely lifting a piece of wire from two cups of mercury closing the
circuit.

The object of Prof. Wheatstone, as I understood it, in bringing into
action a second circuit, was to provide a remedy for the diminution of
force in a long circuit. My object, in the process described by me, was
to bring into operation a large quantity magnet, connected with a
quantity battery in a local circuit, by means of a small intensity
magnet, and an intensity battery at a distance.

The only other scientific facts of importance to the practical opera-
tion of the telegraph not already mentioned are the discovery by
Steinheil, iu 1837, in Germany, of the practicability of completing a
galvanic circuit, by using the earth for completing the circuit, and
the construction of the constant battery in 1836, or about that time,
by Professor Daniell, of King's College, London. I believe that I was
the first to repeat the experiments of Steinheil and Daniell in this
country. I stretched a wire from my study to my laboratory, through
a distance in the air of several hundred yards, and used the earth
as a return conductor, with a very minute battery, the negative ele-
ment of which was a common pin, such as is used in dress, and the
positive element the point of a zinc wire immersed in a single drop of
acid. With this arrangement, a needle was deflected in my laboratory
before my class. I afterwards transmitted currents in various direc-
tions through the college grounds at Princeton. The exact date of
these experiments I am unable to give without reference to my notes.
They were previous, however, to the unsuccessful attempt of Mr. Morse
to transmit currents of electricity through wires buried in the earth
between Washington and Baltimore, and before he attempted to use
the earth as a part of the circuit. Previous to this time, and after the
abovementioned experiments, Mr. Morse visited meat Princeton, to
consult me on the arrangement of his conductors. During this visit,
we conversed freely on the subject of insulation and conduction of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 113

wires. I urged him to put his wires on poles, and stated to him my
experiments and their results.

In the course of the years 1836 and 18S7, various plans of more or
less merit, were devised, and more or less fully carried into effect, for
applying the principles already discovered to the construction of electro-
magnetic telegraphs in different parts of the world, but of these 1 do
not undertake to give any particular account. I would say, however,
that of these plans that for which Mr. Morse subsequently obtained a
patent was, in my judgment, the best.

3. Please state whether or not you are acquainted with the electro-
magnetic telegraph for which S. F. B. Morse obtained a patent in
1846. If you are, please state whether any, and if any, which of the
principles or plans which you have described as discovered, or an-
nounced by yourself or others are used in the construction or opera-
tion of it. State also what principles used in the telegraph are, so
far as you know, original with Professor Morse.

Ansiver. — I am acquainted with the principles and general mode of
operation of the telegraph and improvement referred to. The tele-
graph is based upon the facts discovered by myself and others, of
which I have already given an account.

The plan which was first described to me in the autumn of 1837 by
Mr. Morse, or by Professor Gale, who was associated with him in the
construction of the telegraph, was to employ a single entire circuit of
wire, with an intensity battery to excite the current, and an intensity
magnet to receive it and produce a mechanical action, which would
work the recording apparatus. Mr. Morse afterwards employed the
intensity battery in a long circuit, and an intensity magnet to receive
its current at a distant point, and produce the mechanical effect of
closing a secondary circuit. The secondary circuit may be either em-
ployed to transmit a second current to a distant point and there close
a third circuit, and thus continue the line, or for working a recording
apparatus in the secondary circuit, or it may be employed without
reference to the continuation of the line, as a short local circuit to work
a local magnet. In the first case, there must be in the secondary cir-
cuit an intensity battery and intensity magnet; in the last case, a quan-
tity magnet and quantity battery are required.

I heard nothing of the secondary circuit as a part of Mr. Morse's
plan until after his return from Europe, whither he went in 1838. It
was not till long after this that Mr. Morse used the earth as a part of
the circuit in accordance with the discovery of Steinheil.

I am not aware that Mr. ]\Iorse ever made a single original dis-
covery, in electricity, magnetism, or electro-magnetism, applicable to
the invention of the telegraph. I have always considered his merit
to consist in combining and applying the discoveries of others in the
invention of a particular instrument and process for telegraphic pur-
I)Oses. I have no means of determining how far this invention is
original with himself, or how much is due to those associated with him.

4. Please state when you first became acquainted with Mr. Morse,
and what knowledge he possessed of electricity, magnetism, and

8 s

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

electro-magnetism, and what information yon or others commu-
nicated to him relating to the telegraph. State, also, all you know
of the attempts of himself^ and others associated with him, to construct
an electro-magnetic telegraph, either from your own observation or
from statements made by himself or by others in your presence.
State particularly any conversation, if any, you may have had with
him in reference to your own discoveries applied to the telegraph.

Ansiver. — Shortly after my return from Europe, in the autumn of
1837, I learned that Mr. Morse was about to petition Congress for
assistance in constructing the electro-magnetic telegraph. Some of
my friends in Princeton, knowing what I had done in developing the
principles of the telegraph, urged me to make the representations to
Congress, which I expressed some thought of doing, namely : that
the principles of the electro-magnetic telegraph belonged to the
science of the world, and that any appropriation which might be
made by Congress should be a premium for the best plan, and the
means of testing the same, which the ingenuity of the country might
offer. Shortly after this I visited New York, and there accidentally
made the personal acquaintance of Mr. Morse ;* he appeared to be an
unassuming and prepossessing gentleman, with very little knowledge
of the general jjrinciples of electricity, magnetism, or electro-magnet-
ism. He made no claims, in conversation with me to any scientific
discovery, or to anything l3eyond his particular machine and process
of applying known principles to telegraphic purposes. He explained
to me his plan of a telegraph with which he had recently made a
successful experiment ; I thought this plan better than any with
which I had been made acquainted in Europe ; I became interested
in him, and instead of interfering in his application to Congress, I
[subsequentlyt] gave him a certificate, in the form of a letter, stating
my confidence in the practicability of the electro-magnetic telegraph
and my belief that the form proposed by himself was the best which
had been published.

Mr. Morse subsequently visited Princeton several times to confer
with me on the principles of electricity and magnetism which might
be applicable to the telegraph. I freely gave him any information I
possessed.

I learned in 1837, or thereabouts, that Professor Gale and Dr.
Fisher were the scientific assistants of Mr. Morse in preparing the
telegraph.- Mr. Vail was also employed, but I know not in what
capacity, and I am not personally acquainted with him. With Pro-
fessor Gale I have been intimately acquainted for several years ; he
had been a pupil in chemistry of my friend Dr. Torrey, and had
studied my papers on electro-magnetism, and, as he informed me,
had a[)plied them in the arrangement of the apparatus for the con-
struction of Morse's telegraph.

My researches had been given to the world several years before the
attempt was made to reduce the magnetic telegraph to practice. Mr.

* This meeting took place in the chemical store of Mr. Cliilton, Broadway, New York,
and the place and time are both indelibly impressed upon my mind.

t The word subsequently was accidentally omitted in giving my testimony. The omission,
however, is of little importance.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 115

Cliilton, of New York, informed me that he had referred Mr. Morse
to them previous to his experiments in the New York University. I
was therefore much surprised on the publication, in 1845, of a work
purporting to give a history of the telegraph, and of the principles on
which it was founded, by Mr. Vail, then principal assistant of Mr.
Morse, and one of the proprietors of his patent, to find all my
published researches relating to the telegraph passed over with little
more than the remark that Dr. Moll and myself had made large
electro-magnetic magnets. Presuming that this publication was
authorized by Mr. Morse and the proprietors of the telegraph, I com-
plained to some of his friends of the injustice, and after his return
trom Europe, (for he was absent at the time the book was issued,) I
received a letter, copied and signed by Mr. Vail, but written by Mr.
Morse, as the latter afterwards informed me, excusing the publication,
on the ground that he (Mr. Vail) was ignorant of what I had done,
and asking me for an account of my researches. This letter was
addressed to me after the book had been stereotyped and widely
circulated. It has been translated into French, and, I believe,
published in Paris. To the letter I did not think fit to make
any reply. I afterwards received a letter from Mr. Morse, in his
own name, on the same subject, to which I gave a verbal reply in
January, 1847, in Washington. In this interview Mr. Morse acknow-
ledged that injustice had been done me, but said that proper repara-
tion would be made. Another issue of the same work was made,
b<>aring date 1847, in which there is no change in the statement
relative to my researches.

About the beginning of 1848 Mr. Walker, of the Coast Survey, in
a report on the application of the telegraph to the determination of
differences of longitude, alluded to my researches. A copy of this
was sent to Mr. Morse, which led to an interview between Mr. Walker,
Professor Gale, Mr. Morse, and myself. At this meeting, which took
place at my office in Washington, Mr. Morse stated that he had not
known until reading my paper in January, 1847, that I had two years
before his first conception in 1832, settled the point of practicability
of the telegraph, and shown how mechanical effects could be produced
at a distance, both in the deflection of a needle and in the action of an
electro-magnet; that he did not know, at the time of his experiments
in 1837 that there had been any doubts of the action of a current at
a distance, and that in the confidence of the persuasion that the effect
could be produced, he had devised the proper apparatus by which his
telegraph was put in operation. Professor Gale, being then referred
to, stated that Mr. Morse had forgotten the precise state of the case;
that he, (Mr. Morse,) previous to his, (Dr. Gale's,) connexion with
him, had not succeeded in producing effects at a distance; that, when
he was first called in he found Mr. Morbe attempting to make an
electro-magnet act through a circuit of a few yards of copper wire
suspended around a room in the University of New York, and that
he could not succeed in producing the desired effect even in this
that circuit; that he (Dr. Gale) asked him if he had studied Prof.
Henry's paper on the subject, and that the answer was "no;" that
he then informed Mr. Morse that he would find the principles

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS.

necessary to success explained in that paper; that instead of the
battery of a single element, he should employ one of a number of
pairs ; and that, in place of the magnet with a short single wire, he
should use one with a long coil. Dr. Gale further stated that his
apparatus was in the same building, and that having articles of- the
kind he had mentioned, he procured them, and that with these the
action was produced through a circuit of half a mile of wire.* To this
statement Mr. Morse made no reply. The interview then terminated,
and I have since had no further communication with him on the subject.

5. Please state whether or not you ever constructed any machine
for producing motion by magnetic attraction and repulsion ; if yea,
what was it, and what led to the making of it.

Answer. — After developing the great magnetic power of the electro-
magnet as already described, the thought occurred to me that this
power might be applied to give motion to a machine. The simplest
arrangement which suggested itself to my mind was one already re-
ferred to, namely, causing a movable bar, supported on a horizontal
axis like a scale beam, to be attracted and repelled by two permanent
magnets. This could be readily effected by transmitting through a
coil of wire around the suspended bar a current of galvanism, first in
one direction, and then in the opposite direction, the alternations of
the current being produced by dipping the ends of wires projecting
from the coils into cups of mercury connected with batteries, one on
either side. An account of tliis was published in Silliman's Journal,
for 1831, vol. XX., p. 340. It was the first successful attempt to pro-
duce a mechanical motion which might apparently be employed in
the arts as a motive power. This little machine attracted much atten-
tion at home and abroad, and various modifications of it were made
by myself and others. I never, however, regarded it as practically
applicable in the arts, because of the great expense of producing
power by this means, except, perhaps, in particular cases where ex-
pense of power is of little consequence.

6. Please look at the drawings of the Columbian telegraph, now
shown you, marked G. W. B. and N. B. C, and certified by G. S. Hil-
lard, Commissioner. Describe generally the apparatus represeated
and its mode of operation, and state in what respects, if any, it differs
from the telegraphic apparatus patented by Mr. Morse.

Answer. — I have looked at the drawings, and I find, on examina-
tion, that it will be impossible for me to give a definite answer to the
question, unless I have more time than is now at my disposal, and
the means of examining and comparing the operations of the
machines.

7. Please state, if you can, how many original experiments you
have made in the course of your investigations in electricity, mag-
netism, and electro-magnetism.

Answer. — The experiments I have mentioned in this deposition
form but a small part of my original investigations. Besides many

* See Dr. ale's letter of April 7, 1856, page 93.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS, 117

that I made in Albany, which I have not mentioned, since my re-
moval to Princeton, I have made several thousands on electricity,
magnetism, and electro-magnetism, particularly the former, -which
have more or less hearing on practical applications of this branch of
science, brief minutes of which fill several hundred folio pages. Many
of these have not been published in detail. They have cost me years
of labor and much expense.

The only reward I ever expected was the consciousness of advancing
science, the pleasure of discovering new truths, and the scientific
reputation to which these labors would entitle me.

JOSEPH HENRY.

Sworn to before me, Sentember 7, 1849.

GEO. S. HILLARD,

Commissioner.

GENEEAL APPENDIX TO THE EEPORT FOR 1857.

The object of this Appendix is to illustrate the operations of the
Institution by the reports of lectures and extracts from correspond-
ence, as well as to furnish information of a character suited especially
to the meteorological observers and other persons interested in the
promotion of knowledge.

LECTURES ON COAL.

BY PROFESSOR JOSEPH LB CONTE,

Nature is a book in whicli are revealed the divine character and
mind. Science is the human interpretation of this divine hook, liu-
man attempts to understand the thoughts and plans of Deity. The
hook being divine, it is evident that all parts are equally sacred.
The subjects of all sciences may be said to be equally, because they
are all infinitely, noble. To the scientific mind the organization of an
insect, a polyp, or an infusorial animalcule is no less dignified a sub-
ject of human inquiry than the organization of the solar system. Yet,
as in the Sacred Scriptures, while all parts are equally sacred, because
all are divine, some are cherished with peculiar reverence, as giving
nobler conceptions of divine character, or clearer views of human duty.
So also in science there are some branches which, by a certain magni-
tude in the objects with which they deal, strike the imagination and
kindle the enthusiasm in a peculiar degree. From a purely abstract
or intellectual point of view they may be all equal, but as human stu-
dies, as means of elevating the mind and ennobling the soul, they
differ very much among themselves.

In this, the noblest function of science, there are two departments
which stand out beyond all others, viz : astronomy and geology. We
are all accustomed to look upon astronomy as the most magnificent of
sciences, as more than all others extending the bounds of human
intellectual vision ; but I am perfectly confident that when the age
has grasped as firmly and apprehended as clearly the fundamental
idea of geology as it has already done that of astronomy, all will
agree with me in thinking that the former is not one whit behind the
latter in the overwhelming grandeur of its conceptions. Let us, then,
compare these two noble sciences. Let us attempt to vindicate the
claims of geology to stand beside astronomy in the very first rank of
sciences as twin sisters, distinguished from all others by superior
beauty and dignity.

There are two conditions of material existence, viz : space and time.
We cannot conceive of material existence except under these two con-
ditions. Now, the peculiar province of astronomy is space, as that of
geology is time. Other sciences may have to do with space, limited
space, a portion of space, but it belongs to astronomy alone to deal
with infinite space. So also there are other sciences which necessarily
deal with limited time, but it is the peculiar prerogative of geology to
deal with infinite time.* As astromy is limited in time to the present
epoch, or, in fact, to about two thousand years, but unlimited in space,
so also geology is limited in space to the surface of the earth, but un-
limited in time. As astronomy measures her distances by billions of

* We use the term " wylm^e" with reference to time, as with reference to space, as synony-
mous with inconceivahhj great, illimitable by human conception.

1'20 LECTURES

miles, or millions of earth radii, so geology her epochs hy millions
of years, i. e., earth revolutions. As the astronomer takes the ra-
dius of the earth as a base line wherewith to measure the dimensions
of the solar system, so the geologist takes the present geological
epoch, and " causes now in operation," as a time measuring rod, with
which to estimate the length of the tertiary period. As the astrono-
mer, becoming more bold as he ascends, takes the diameter of the
earth's orbit as a line wherewith to calculate the distances of the fixed
stars, or even dares to estimate the probable distance of the remotest
nebula, so the geologist, no less daring, takes the tertiary as a rod
wherewith to measure approximatively the almost inconceivable lapse
of time represented by the secondary rocks, or even dares to cast his
telescopic glance back into the dim nebulosity of the remotest palaeo-
zoic period. Finally, as the astronomer _, when telescopic vision fails,
still speculates, though filled with awe, concerning the infinite, un-
known abyss of space beyond, so also the geologist, when mile-stones
are no longer visible^ when fossils and stratified rocks fail, still vainly
peers with wondering gaze backward, and strives to pierce the dark-
ness beyond, still believes that all he sees, or can ever hope to see, is
but a fragment of the infinite abyss of time beyond. Overwhelmed,
appalled, he shrinks back within himself, and remembers that his own
mind, so daring, so arrogant, so apparently limitless, is also but a
fragment of the infinite intelligence.

Thus, while astronomy fills the regions of the universe with objects,
geology fills the regions of infinite duration with events. As astronomy
carries us upwards by the relations of geometry, geology carries us
backwards by the relations of cause and efi'ect. As astronomy steps
irom point to point of the universe by a chain of triangles, so geology
stej)s trom epoch to epoch of the earth's history by a chain of me-
chanical and organical laws. If one depend on the axioms of geome-
try, the other depends upon the axioms of causation. In a word, the
realm of astronomy is the universe of space, that of geology the uni-
verse of time. The one peoples her universe with space-ivorlds , the
other her's with creations — time-ioorlds.

The great object of all science is to establish the universality of law ;
harmony in the midst of apparent confusion ; unity in the midst of
diversity; unity of force amidst diversity of phenomena, physical sci-
ence ; unity of plan in the midst of diversity of expression, natural
science. Now, it is the peculiar province of astronomy to establish
this universality of law throughout all space^ as it is of geology
throughout all time. Astronomy shows that the same force which
controls the falling of a stone governs the motions of the heavenly
bodies ; so also geology shows that the changes through which each
animal passes in its embryonic development are similar to those
through which the whole earth and its inhabitants have passed in
the course of its geological history; that the same mind which now
conducts the one has presided through all time over the other. If
astronomy, more than all other sciences, illustrates that sublime attri-
bute of Deity, His omnipresence or unchangeableness in space, geology,
more than all other sciences, illustrates that other sublime attribute
of Deity, His immutability or unchangeableness in time.

ON COAL. 121

There are in the history of science two eras which, more than all
others, strike the imagination and fill the mind with admiration. Or
rather, I should say, two moments, the greatest in the intellectual
h'story of the human race. They are those in w^hich were horn in
the mind of man the fundamental ideas of astronomy and geology —
the ideas of infinite space and infinite time, containing other worlds
and other creations. You have all, probably, thought of the sublimity
of that moment when the idea of infinite space, peopled with worlds
like our own, was first thoroughly realized by the mind of man. You
have all, probably, shared in imagination the exstacy of Galileo as
gazing with awe through the first telescope, the phases of Venus and
the satellites of Jupiter suddenly revealed to him the existence of
other worlds besides his own. Before that pregnant moment our own
was alone in the universe. Sun, moon, and stars were but satellites
to the earth. Astronomy was but the geometry of the heavens ; the
geometry ot the curious lines which these ^'' luandering fires" traced
upon the crystalline concave of the skies. In an instant the great
fundamental idea of modern astronomy was born in the mind of
Galileo. In an instant man's intellectual vision is infinitely extended,
but his own world, before so great, has shrunk into an atom in the
midst of infinite space ; has become a younger sister, a comparatively
insignificant member in a great family of worlds.

We have all been accustomed to look upon this as the grandest
moment in the intellectual history of man. But there is another
moment less known, or if known^ less thought of, because less under-
stood and less appreciated^ but not less grand. It is that in which
was born in the mind of man the fundamental idea of geology ; in
which the idea of other time-worlds besides our own entered the mind
of the aged Bufi'on.

For many years, indeed centuries, it had been observed that organic
remains, particularly marine shells, might be found far inland, and
even high up the slopes of mountains. There was much speculation
among scientific men as to the origin of these shells. They were
attributed by some to the deluge, by others more truly to gradual and
permanent changes in the relative level of sea and laud. But no one
for a moment supposed that they belonged to any period anterior to
the present epoch. Some may have supposed that they were extending
the known limits of the present epoch, that they were discovering new
continents in the ocean of time, but never dreamed that these were
the evidences of a neiu icorld in the infinite abyss of time. Buftbn
himself had taken active part in these discussions. Finally, near the
end of the last century, and in the evening of his great and long life,
a large number of these remains, both marine shells and mammalian
vertebrates, larger than he had ever examined before, were placed at
his disposal and subject to his inspection. To his astonishment he
found them entirely different from species now inhabiting the earth.
In that moment, in the mind of the venerable Buffon, suddenly, like
Minerva from the head of Jove, was born the idea of infinite time
containing successive creations. In an instant man's intellectual
vision was again infinitely extended ; but his own world again
dwindled into a single day in the geological history of the earth.

122 LECTURES

The whole future of geology was seen in the vision of that moment.
Filled with awe, the old man, then over 80 years of age, published
his discovery. In a kind of sacred phrenzy he spoke of the magnifi-
cence of the prospect, and prophesied of the future glories of this new
science, which he was, alas, too old to pursue. Thus, to the last, his
dying hand pointed the way, and his dying voice kindled the enthu-
siasm of those whom he could no longer lead.

Picture for a moment to yourself the aged Buffon thus gazing in
rapture, silent and alone, upon this new world suddenly opened to his
intellectual vision. I cannot help comparing him to Moses of old on
the top of Pisgah. Like Moses, he had reached the extreme verge of
mortal life ; like him, he stood upon a mount, raised far above the
rest of the world by the eminence of his intellectual position ; like
him, he gazed with sacred solemn joy, mingled with sadness, upon a
new world, a promised land, which he was forbidden to enter ; and,
like him, also, he died there upon the mount, prophesying of the
future glories of the new land, and calling upon his followers to enter
in and take possession.

One more comparison between these two noble sciences : In com-
paring modern with ancient or even mediasval civilization, nothing
is more striking or more significant than the difference in the manner
in which nature is viewed in relation to man. The spirit of the older
civilization tended to exalt man in his own estimation and to degrade
nature, while that of modern civilization tends to humiliate by
insisting upon his insignificance in comparison with the greatness
of nature. In art this is seen in the gradual but constant increase
in the contemplation of nature, both in painting and poetry. An
increasing love of wilderness and mountain, of rock and crag, of cloud
and sky. In science it is still more distinctly seen in the amazing
progress of the physical and natural sciences. The mind of man has
gradually passed from the study and contemplation of itself to the
study and contemplation of nature. We believe this was a necessary,
but cannot believe that it is a final change. When, by the study of
external nature, a true and solid foundation is laid for philosophy, the
human mind will again return to the study and contemplation of
itself, as the greatest of nature's works.

Now, it has already been seen, that among the most efficient agents
in bringing about this great and necessary change have been the
sciences of astronomy and geology. Nothing has tended so much to
humiliate the pride of man as the recognition of the astounding fact
that Ids habitation, Ms luoiid, is but an atom among millions of simi-
lar atoms in the boundless realms of space ; and that his time, the
life of his race, is but a day in the immeasurable cycle of geological
changes. But there is this great difference between the two sciences,
that while astronomy leaves man thus humiliated, prostrate, and
hopeless, geology lifts him up and restores him to his dignity. While
astronomy gives no evidence of the superiority of the earth to other
heavenly bodies, or of man above other possible material intelli-
gences — gives no hint of the superior dignity of our world among
other space-worlds — geology most distinctly declares the superior
dignity of our time world, and of our race, among all other time-

ON COAL. 123

worlds and their races. She teaches unmlstakeably that there has
been a gradual course of preparation for the present epoch ; that there
is an unity of plan in the whole system of time-worlds ; that, in a
certain sense, they are all satellites to ours ; that they are all bound
together by a force ; that force the plans of the Almighty, and its
centre the present epoch. Thus man becomes the centre of the
universe of time. Thus, also, by analogy we are led to suspect that
there may be a similar unity in the system of space-worlds also,
and that ours may, and probably does, enjoy a superiority, if not in
size at least in organization, and therefore in the intelligence of its
inhabitants. Thus man's dignity is restored, or rather, I should say,
dignity is given in place of pride. " Pride goeth before a fall," but
dignity comes after.

But it will no doubt be objected by many that the position of a
science depends not only upon the dignity of its subjects, but also, in
no small degree, upon the certainty of its conclusions, and that, in
this respect, astronomy is far superior. But even this is a mistake,
the result of misconception. Even here the superiority of astronomy
has been very much exaggerated. Astronomy has its hypotheses and
uncertainties as well as geology ; and, on the other hand, geology has
its certainties as well as astronomy ; only it has happened, in this as
well as in many other cases, that the wisdom of age has given false
dignity to its errors and follies, while the wildness of youth has dis-
credited its wisdom. The certainties of astronomy have given an
appearance of truth to its wildest hypotheses, while the hypotheses of
geology have unjustly thrown some discredit upon her truest theories
and most certain iacts. The certainties of astronomy are the form,
size, weight, distance, and relative position of her space-worlds. Her
uncertainties are their physical geography, climate, and, more than
all, their inhabitants, animal and vegetable. The certainties of ge-
ology are the physical geography, climate, and, more than all, the
inhabitants, animal and vegetable, of her time-worlds, while her un-
certainties are their relative size and distance. It is seen, then, that
the certainties of the one are precisely the uncertainties of the other.
Which, then, are the nobler — the certainties of astronomy or those
of geology ? Is it more noble to know the relative size and position
of worlds in space and time or to be acquainted with the beings
which form their ciowning glory? It would carry me too far to pur-
sue this train of thought. Suffice it to say that, in either case, that
which was most important to know has been rendered most certain ;
while, also, in both cases, that which is most uncertain is also least
important to know.

I have thought this long introduction necessary, because geology is
so constantly misunderstood. She is looked upon by some with sus-
picion, as wild in her speculations and uncertain in her conclusions ;
by others with indifference, as a mass of dry and unattractive detail ;
and by still others with positive dread, as tending to infidelity. I
deemed it necessary, therefore, to say a few words in vindication of
her high rank among the inductive sciences, both in respect to the
certainty of her conclusions, and, still more, the nobleness of her con-
ceptions and the absorbing interest of her subjects. . I miffht havje

124 LECTURES

gone still further, and vindicated her claim to be considered the chief
handmaid of religion among the sciences. But this would have led
me much too far. Thirty years later, and all I have thus far said
would have been unnecessary. One generation more and geology
will need no defender ; both her dignity and her religious tendency
will be universally acknowledged. But for this purpose one more
generation must first pass away.

Perhaps it may seem to some of you as a startling paradox, but it
is nevertheless a fact, that the shortness of human life is one of the
most powerful elements of human progress. It would seem as if the
human mind grows and develops, the philosophy and opinions which
govern the conduct of life continue to be modified and moulded, until
about the age of twenty-five or thirty, when the character becomes
unchangeable, opinions become prejudices, and the whole mind, as it
were, petrified. Further progress would be impossible, but that
another generation, with minds still plastic, comes forward, takes up
and carries on the work a few steps, and becomes petrified in its turn.
There are certainly some noble exceptions to this rule — instances of
minds which with their maturity retain the plasticity of youth — but
the very rarity of the exception only proves the rule.

You doubtless recollect that tlie children of Israel wandered forty
years in the wilderness before they were fit to enter the promised
land. The marks of Egyptian bondage were upon their souls as well
as upon their necks. One generation must fall in the wilderness, and
a new generation, free from Egyptian prejudices, must arise. We
are apt to look upon this as an isolated fact in history, and entirely
characteristic of this peculiar people. On the contrary, it is a fact
of deepest significance in the philosophy of human progress, and
intended for the instruction of us all. To this day it seems to be im-
possible that any great step should be made in the intellectual progress
of our race, except by the sacrifice of at least one generation. We
are even now in the midst of such a great change, brought about by
the revelations of geology. One more generation dropped in the
wilderness and we are fairly in the promised land. Do not misunder-
stand me, however, as quai rolling with this conservative spirit; on
i\\e contrary, this brake upon the wheels of the car of progress seems
absolutely necessary for its steady motion.

But I find I am again digressing, and therefore hasten to return to
my subject.

I have said that the field of geology is the universe of time. It is
one of these time-worlds of which I wish to draw a true, though
necessarily an outline, picture in the next two or three lectures. I
shall not attempt more than an outline, for this would only tire you
with a multitucle of details, but shall seize, if possible, the most strik-
ing features, make a comparison between this and other subsequent
time-worlds, particularly our own, and endeavor to find the law which
binds the whole into one system.

Among the many time-worlds of which geology tells us I select but
one, viz : the Coal Period. Its position is far back in the pah\3ozoic
times. Measuring time by space it is in the region of the fixed stars,
although one of the brightest in the firmament of time. If I could

ON COAL. 125

transport yon in imagination to the surface of Sirias ; if I could draw
a picture of its physical geography, climate, and, more than all, of its
inhabitants, who in this audience would remain unmoved? Shall
the interest be less because the separation from us is by time instead
of space ; because the place is our own earth, and the materials of the
picture beneath our very feet?

The coal period is a world distinctly separated from those which
precede and those which follow it. As in the geographical distribu-
tion of fauna and flora upon the surface of the earth at the present
time, we find in some cases contiguous fauna and flora seem to inter-
penetrate or pass by insensible gradations into one another ; the
species on the confines of each dying out in number but not in specific
character, insensibly replaced but not ty-ansmuted. So also in the dis-
tribution of fauna and flora in time we find some (as, for instance,
those of the- tertiary) which pass by insensible gradations into one
another, or interlock with the preceding and succeeding, although
only by gradual replacement, not by transmutation. But as in
geographical distribution we also find many fauna and flora com-
pletely isolated by physical barriers, mountain chains, oceans, or
deserts, from contiguous fauna and flora, so also in geological dis-
tribution we find creations are often distinctly separated from other
creations contiguous in time, by physical barriers in the form of con-
vulsions of the earth, and marked by broken, dislocated, and upturned
strata. In the history of the earth there seems to have been many
such successive creations completely destroyed by convulsions ; in
other words, the time-worlds are apparently separated by blank
spaces, whose dimensions we have no means of estimating. Such a
distinct world is the coal period, with its fauna and flora distinctly
separated from the old red sandstone which precedes, and still more
so from the new red sandstone which succeeds. A distinct world —
completely circumscribed in time — having its own poles and equator.

Now, in geology, history is recorded upon tablets of stone — stratified
rocks. Time is represented by their thickness; remarkable events by
their dislocation ; the fauna and flora by the contained fossils. Let
us, then, examine the strata which represent this period.

They are called the "carboniferous strata," and the period the
" carboniferous period," from the remarkable fact that they contain
almost all the coal which is found in the world. The deposit of car-
bonaceous matter is not indeed confined to this period, for it has oc-
curred in every period of the earth's history, as evidenced by the fact
that thin seams of coal are found in all the strata. Similar deposits are
still going on in peat bogs and. deltas of the present day. But the accu-
mulations of carbon in the strata of which we are speaking are so enor-
mous, in comparison to those found elsewhere, that the name carbonife-
rous, as applied to these strata and this period, becomes entirely appro-
priate. With the single exception of the oolite strata, which belong to
the secondary period, and in which coal is profitably mined in Virginia
and in England, all known coal mines belong to the carboniferous
strata. The knowledge of this simple fact would have saved the
useless expenditure of millions of dollars, both in this country and
in England. It is worse than useless to expend money and labor in

126 LECTURES

following up signs of coal, unless we are sure we are in tlie region of
the carboniferous strata.

The carboniferous strata are subdivided into two very distinct groups,
representing, of course, distiuctsubdivisionsof the carboniferous period.
These are called lower and upper carboniferous, or the mountain lime-
stone, and the "coal measures." The former are mostly limestone,
the latter mostly shales and sandstone ; the one mostly of marine
origin, the other mostly fresh water ; the fossils of the one are mostly
marine animals, of the other terrestrial vegetation. I shall confine
myself entirely to the latter, or the true ^^coal measures," as they are
called, from the fact that ninety-nine hundredths of all the coal in the
world are found in them.

You will observe, then, that I have taken for my subject one-half
of the carboniferous period. The carboniferous is itself but one of the
four great subdivisions of the palre'zoic period^ and the palfBzoic period,
in its turn, only one of the four great epochs, exclusive of the present,
into which the history of our earth is divided. You see, then, that
the period of which I wish to give you a rapid sketch is less than
one-thirtieth part of the recorded history of the earth ; yet the average
thickness of these strata is about 3,000 or 4,000 feet. In Wales they
are 12,000 feet thick, and in Nova Scotia nearly 15,000. If, then,
thickness of strata represent length of time, how great must be the
lapse of time represented by the coal measures.

Such being the enormous thickness of the coal measures, it neces-
sarily follows that but a very small proportion of the mass consists of
coal. The coal strata consist of thick beds of limestone, sandstone,
ironstone, and shale, containing thin seams of coal, and this alterna-
tion sometimes many times repeated in the same locality ; the whole
forming a series like the sheets of a ream of paper, arranged in no
discoverable rational order, but indiscriminately alternating. The
seam of coal will sometimes be covered with a stratum of limestone,
sometimes of standstone, and sometimes of shale ; although it rarely
happens that the sandstone or limestone comes directly in contact
with the coal ; but is generally separated by a stratum, sometimes
very thin, of shale or slate. In fact a stratum of clay or fine mud
rock both underlies and overlies each seam. Below it forms the "fire
clay," and above the black slate of the miners.

F.ff. 1. J have said that the order is various in different parts of
the same alternating series ; but in every part of the same
coal field the alternation is the same for the same part of
the series. In other words, each stratum is generally
horizontally extended over the whole coal field in a con-
tinuous sheet, so that each seam is accompanied by the
same strata above and below. This is a fact of great
importance, as it affords the readiest means of determining
the identity of individual coal seams.

Coal strata, like all other sedimentary deposits, were at
the time of formation horizontal, or nearly so. Sometimes
they are found nearly in this their original position, as in
many of the coal fields of our own country. More generally this
original horizontality has been disturbed by igneous agency, and the

Sh..

-"^—-^^

Sd...

L. ..

Sh..
S. ..

s. ..

Sh..
Sh ..

■mr^

L. ..

S. ..
L. ..

-=^«^— ^

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JZ—Z —

Sh..

ON COAL.

127

coal strata are found in the form of basins. Sometimes the strata are
so folded as to give rise to series of basins belons^ing to tbe same

Pig. 2.

Fi?. 3.

original field. "Whether, however, the strata retain their original
horizontality, or are thrown into basins by igneous agency, seldom or
never do we find the whole of the original mass deposited. A large
portion has been carried away by aqueous agency. Frrm this cause
a large coal field, covering many thousands of square miles, may exist
only in the form of isolated mountains or detached basins of coal
strata, as in the accompanying figures, where all the mass represented

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

FiS. 6.

by tbe dotted lines has been carried away by denuding agencies.
Thus, for instance, nearly the whole of Illinois was originally occupied
by a vast coal field, but little disturbed by igneous agency, but by far
the larger portion of the coal strata of this immense field was carried
away by denuding agencies.

You will observe, then, the striking difierence in mode of occur-
rence between metallic ores and coal. The former are associated with
rocks of every age, except, perhaps, the tertiary ; the latter almost
exclusively confined to those of a particular age. The former exist
in the form of veins intersecting the strata, the latter in the form of
seams parallel with the strata. The former extend indefinitely down-
wards, the latter horizontally. The former are the result of igneous
agency, the latter of sedimentary deposit. Ignorance of this simple
but radical difierence has been the cause of much pecuniary loss, and
seems not yet entirely eradicated. When, for instance, some years ago
it was rumored in the streets of Philadelphia that the bottom of the
Mauch Chunk Summit mine was reached, there was an universal panic,
and stocks in coal mines went down enormously, not knowing that the
continuation of coal seams was to be looked ibr horizontally rather
than vertically.

This simple rule, when taken in connexion with the one previously
enunciated, viz: that a coal seam throughout its whole extent is
attended both above and below by the same strata, would render the
identification of coal seams, and the tracing ot them across valleys
from hillside to hillside, a matter of little difficulty, were it not for

128

LECTURES

dislocation of tlie strata, producing what are called faults, slips, or
troubles. In tlie accompanying figures, for instance, the strata have

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

been displaced hj the elevation of one part of the field more than
another. This is not conspicuous on the surface, because all has been
cut down to one level by aqueous agencies. The supposed configura-
tion of surface immediately after such unequal elevation is represented
by the dotted outline ; the strong line represents the present configu-
ration of surface. All between these, therefore, represents the
amount of matter carried away by denuding agencies. These faults
occur very often in coal fields, and are a source of serious annoyance
to the miner.

I have taken here the simplest case of dislocation. The difficulty
becomes very much greater when, instead of being horizontal, the
strata are highly and variously inclined. In such cases the skill and
knov^ledge of the geologist is often tasked to the utmost.

I have said that while metallic veins extend indefinitely downwards,
coal scams for the most part are extended horizontally, or nearly so.
Sometimes, however, coal seams may appear, like metallic veins, to
extend downwards. This is the case in highly inclined and particu-
larly in vertical strata, as in the accompanying sketch of the anthracite
coal field of Pennsylvania. In such cases, however, as well as in

Fig. 9.

every other, it will be observed that the seams are strictly parallel
with the strata, that the strata have been elevated to a vertical posi-
tion by igneous agency, and the included coal seams have been raised
with them, still maintaining their relative position.

The thickness of coal seams varies from a few lines to many feet ;
sometimes they exist as sheets as thin as paper, in others in masses 30
or 40 feet thick. A single seam of pure coal, however, is seldom more
than 6 or 8 feet thick. It is true that in France and in the anthracite
region of Pennsylvania they are said to occur 60 or 70 feet thick, or
even more, but upon close examination such mammoth seams will be
found to consist of two or more seams, separated by thin laminas of
slate ; too thin, however, to form a roof, and, therefore^ the several
seams are wrought together as one.

The number of seams occurring in one locality and separated by
interstratified sandstone and shale is sometimes as great as one
hundred, and their aggregate thickness one hundred and fifty feet.
Enormous as is this mass of carbonaceous matter, it is but a small
fraction of the entire mass of the coal strata. The thickest and purest

ON COAL.

129

seams are generally near the middle of tkis series ; as if tlie conditions
necessary for the formation of coal had gradually come into existence
and as gradually disappeared ; that there were two poles and an
equator belonging to this time-world — a morn, noon^ and evening to
this geological day.

We have spoken thus far only of the thickness of coal strata and of
coal seams ; but it is impossible to form a correct idea of the amount
of matter contained in these strata or in these seams without taking
into account also their horizontal extent. Coal is very widely dis-
tributed over the world,, although some countries are more favored
than others. England, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Sweden,
Poland, and Russia have their beds of coal. It is also found abun-
dantly in Asia, Africa, and South America ; but no where is the coal
formation more extensively displayed than in the United States, and
no where are its beds of greater thickness, more convenient for work-
ing, or of more valuable quality. There are within the limits of the
United States no less than four coal fields of enormous dimensions.
One of these, the Appalachian coal field, commences on the north, in
Pennsylvania and Ohio, sweeping south through western Virginia

Ur.S. (j£ A-merica.

CoalArea
103500 S^.Miles

Brit . Amer. '; Gr. Brit .

18000 i 11860

Sy. 771 \ S(f.Tn

Spaia

3±08

a °

France Belgiom

1719 5L8

Sff-Tih Sq,.Tn<

and eastern Kentucky, Tennessee, extends even into Alabama. Its
area is estimated at about 60,000 square miles. A second occupies
the greater portion of Illinois and Indiana ; in extent almost equal to

* Recent estimates by Marcou and by H. D. Rodgers make the coal area of the United
States near 200,000 square miles.

9 s

130

LECTURES

the Appalachian. A third covers the greater portion of Missouri, while
a fourth occupies the greater portion of Michigan Just out ot the
limits of the United States, in New Brunswick and Nova bcotia there
is still a fifth, occupying, according to Mr. Lyell, an area ot 36,000
square miles. Besides these there are several others oi less extent.

If we now compare the relative coal areas of the principal coal pro-
ducing countries, the superiority of our own will he still conspicuous.
The following diagrams represent these relative areas m a more m-
telligihle form than could he done hy mere figures.

But if, on the other hand, we compare in the same manner the
relative annual production of the same countries, we will find the
order very different.

Fig. n.

Great Britain

ArunxLctlFro diiettorv
3L500.0002S7^s

Belgium

4.960.000
Tbns

Umted States

4.400.OOO
Jons

Erance

4141.600
Tons

It will be seen that the annual production of coal in Great Britain
is more than seven times that of the United States although her coal
area is so much less. It is estimated that even at this enormous rate
of production the coal fields of Great Britain will yet last for 500
vears. There is little danger, then, that ours will fail us shortly.

Now industry, as the hasis of the organization of society, forms the
distinguishing feature of modern civilization. Coal is the very aliment
of industry. The material prosperity of any country may therefore
he tolerably accurately estimated by the amount of coal consumed.

ON COAL. 131

According to this method of estimation, Great Britain is superior to
all other countries in actual material civilization. But if the con-
sumption of coal is a measure of the actuau civilization of a country,
the amount of coal area represents its 2yotential civilization. How far
are we superior to all other countries in this respect ! What a glorious
destiny awaits us in the future — a destiny already predetermined in
the earliest geological history of the earth.

One more remark and I am done. It is certain that, as manu-
facturing and productive industry take root and flourish almost ex-
clusively in cjol and temperate climates, so also in them do the coal
formations prevail in the greatest abundance. Oar scientific maps
and investigations confirm the one, and national statistics the other.
Almost all the true coal of the world is found in the north temperate
zone. Thus the climates which are most congenial to laborious occu-
pations, the latitudes best adapted to the vigorous growth of industrial
civilization, are precisely those where, fortunately, have been placed
the materials of labor, the aliment of industry. Fortunately did I
say? No; this has not been the result of blind chance, but oi
deliberate providential design. We have here a sublime illustration
of that all-comprehensive foreknowledge which foresees and designs
the end from the beginning ; of that immutability which changes not,
but only unfolds its eternal plans ; of that unity in the system of
time-worlds of which I have already spoken, our own epoch being the
sun and centre.

THEORIES OF THE COAL.

There is no point connected with the coal which has been the
subject of so much discussion as the manner of its accumulation. At
first view, existing nature seems to offer no analogy to guide us in
our attempts to account for such enormous accumulations of carbona-
ceous matter. It is admitted, however, I believe, on all hands, that
the deposit must have taken place in water. The perfect preservation
of the carbon of the plants, and often of their external forms and
structure, which must have suffered complete oxydation and disinte-
gration if exposed to the air, the fact that the plants were most or all
of them swamp plants, and, more than all, the alternation of coal
seams with sedimentary deposits of clay and sand, all seem to point
unmistakably to water as the preserving agent. There is still
another evidence which I think has generally been overlooked. In
the midst of the more structureless bituminous matter of the coal are
often found imbedded wedge-shaped masses of vascular tissue called
native carbon. No one who attentively examines these wedges can
fail to perceive that they are the wooden wedges of exogens separated
by the decomposition of the softer cellular tissue of the intervening
medullary rays, while they floated as logs upon the water and finally
became imbedded in the carbonaceous mud below.

Thus far I believe all theorists agree. But from this point opinions
diverge ; some geologists holding that the coal was deposited on the
spot where the plants grew, others that the plants were drifted in the

132 LE-DTUEES

form of rafts to great distances and deposited at the mouths of rivers ;
the former, that a coal basin is the site of an ancient peat bog, th©
latter, that it is the position of an ancient estuary or delta. The
former opinion is called the ^^ peat hog theory," the latter the
" estuoA'y theory."

Peat hog theory. — It is well known that in many countries, par-
ticularly in moist, cool climates, and damp, low grounds, certain
plants, such as ferns, mosses, &c., as well as trees which delight in
moist places, if allowed to grow undisturbed from generation to
generation will, by their decay, accumulate enormous masses of car-
bonaceous matter. Such a spot is called a peat hog. The theory of
this accumulation is as follows : Plants derive all their carbon from
the atmosphere. In the annual fall of leaf, and finally their own
death, they return to the earth the whole of the matter thus silently
extracted irom the air. Undisturbed vegetation, therefore, constantly
enriches the soil by adding to it what has been taken from the air.
Thus worn out lands improve by lying fallow. Thus the rich black
vegetable mould found covering the ground in forests continues to
increase from year to year. In all ordinary cases, however, there is
a limit beyond which this accumulation will not go. By decom-
position the organic matter is again returned to the atmosphere as

: fast as it accumulates. But if by any means this decomposition is

<:prevented the organic matter accumulates indefinitely. This is
precisely what takes place in peat bogs. The presence of water
in a great measure prevents the oxydation of the carbon. The
growth of plants now continually takes carbon from the atmosphere,
their death as continually deposits it upon the earth. Each genera-

-tion rises, phoenix-like, from the ashes of the last, to become in its
turn soil for the next. Thus the ancestral accumulation continues
to increase, the funeral pile continues to rise, until pure carbonaceous
matter may in time accumulate to the depth of thirty or forty feet.

. Such a mass of carbonaceous matter deprived of its water and com-
pressed to the density of coal, would make a seam of perhaps three

■ or four feet in thickness. Now, according to the peat bog theory, it
is under such circumstances that the carbon of a coal seam has been

; accumulated.

The arguments in favor of this theory are : 1st. The purity of the

. coal. It is true that coal is often found largely mixed with earthy
matter or mud. As we have already shown, every stage of gradation

i may be traced between pure coal and pure shale. But by far the
larger portion of coal seems to be entirely free from foreign matter.

' The amount of ash is not greater than five to ten per cent. ; that is,
not greater than might arise from the earthy matter of the plants
Irom which the coal was derived. This purity of the coal indicates
complete absence of sediment in the water in which the coal was
originally laid down. Now the water of peat swamps, though dis-

. colored by organic matter in solution, is always entirely free from
sediment. In fact, this seems a necessary condition of the growth of
peat plants — an incursion of water containing mud is fatal to such
plants. If, then, a coal seam is the result of carbonaceous matter

ON COAL. 133

slowly accumulated at the bottom of ancient peat swamps, tlie purity
of the coal is completely accounted for. But if, on the contrary, it is
formed by the accumulation of timber carried down to the mouths of
great rivers during freshets, it should always be largely mised with
mud.

2d. The fine preservation of the tenderest and most delicate parts
of plants. We have already spoken of the profusion of finely-
preserved leaves and entire fronds of ferns in the black slate overlying
a coal seam. So perfect is this preservation that large and complex
fronds are often entirely unbroken, and even the minutest variation
of the leaves as distinct as in the living fern. This fine preservation
of tender parts seems strongly to indicate that these leaves had fallen
gently from the parent stem, and been preserved on the spot where
they fell. It seems utterly inconsistent with the violent action of
currents bearing rafts to great distances.

3d. The position of the finely-preserved leaves, &c., always on the
opper surface of the coal seam, (roof of the coal mine.) Precisely
the same is observed in every peat swamp. The perfect leaves are to
be found only on top, for the plain reason that these are the last
fallen, and therefore not yet disorganized. But in the case of accu-
mulations of vegetable matter at the mouths of rivers, there seems to
be no reason why leaves should not be entangled in all parts alike.

4th. Coal, like peat, is composed of completely disorganized carbo-
naceous matter, containing fragments in which vegetable structure is
more distinct. This is not inconsistent with what I have already
said in my last lecture of the vegetable origin of even the most
structureless coal being detectable by the microscope. Plants are
composed entirely of cells. Both in peat and in coal these cells are
generally separated from one another. The vegetable structure is
completely disorganized, but the separate cells still bear unmistakable
marks of their origin ; the organic structure is gone, but the organic
origin is still visible. But if a coal seam was an imbedded raft, it
should be composed almost entirely of fragments of trunks, branches,
&c., instead of a structureless mass containing only a few such
fragments.

5th. It will be recollected that a seam of coal is overlaid by black
slate and underlaid by fire-clay. In the black slate, as already said,
are found the finest impressions of leaves and other tender parts ; in
the Jire-day, which underlies the coal seam, are found imbedded in
the greatest abundance the roots of plants, and not unfrequently the
stumps of trees with the roots attached, precisely as they grow. And,
what is still more remarkable and significant, trunks of trees are not
unfrequently found almost entire, standing erect, with their roots still
bedded in the fire-clay, their trunks passing through the seam, and
far into the overlying strata of shale and limestone. By means of
evidence of this kind Lyell and Dawson have been able to make out
distinctly nearly 60 planes of successive vegetation in the coal field of
Nova Scotia. In many of these, viz: about 20, the trees are slill in
the position in which they grew, as shown in figure 12 ; of the rest
the evidence consisted in the imbedded stigmaria or roots of sigil-
laria.

134

LECTUEES

Fig. 12. In tlie cases in which these

trunks and roots, in situ, are
found, (and they are by no
means uncommon,) the evidence
is conclusive that the coal was
formed on the spot where the
trees grew; in other words, that
the growth of the trees and the
deposit of the coal took place
simultaneously on the same spot.
This is clearly impossible in an
estuary, but is known to take
place in every peat swamp.
To recapitulate the whole argument : If we examine a peat bog
which has been for many years thickly overgrown with ferns, mosses,
and water plants of various kinds, and shaded by many large trees,
we find the soil composed entirely of black carbonaceous matter,
wholly destitute of structure but revealing its vegetable origin to the
microscope, containing fragments of trunks and branches of trees
lying in all possible positions, some prostrate, some inclined at all
angles, many, both living and dead, still erect, their roots firmly fixed
in the clay at the bottom of the bog, below the peaty matter which
has slowly gathered about their lower parts, and over the whole lie
thickly strewn the freshly fallen leaves. Now suppose such a peat
bog to be deeply buried beneath the surface of water and overwhelmed
with sediment of clay and sand, and again, after ages, elevated and
exposed by section to the scrutiny of the geologist, and we shall have
a complete reproduction of the phenomena of a coal seam.

The great, and almost the only, objection which has been urged against
this theory is to be found, not in the phenomena of an individual coal
seam, but rather in the general phenomena of coal basins, in the re-
peated alternation in the same locality of coal seams with marine and
fresh water strata. We have already seen that there are in the same
coal basin sometimes as many as an hundred coal seams, one above the
other ; now, according to this theory, when the coal seam was forming
the spot must have been above the surface of the sea, but when the inter-
stratified limestones and shales were being deposited the same spot
must have been beneath the sea-level. Thus^ argues the objector, we
are driven to the enormous assumption that the same spot has been
successively upheaved above and depressed beneath the sea-level one
hundred times during the carboniferous period, and, what is still
more remarkable, that every time it rose above the sea it became a
peat swamp ; or if the intervening strata are fresh water instead of
marine, the difficulty seems only to be increased.

Estuary theory. — It is to meet this very difficulty, to account
for this remarkable alternation of strata, that the rival theory has
been proposed. An estuary is the wide open mouth of a river empty-
ing into a tidal sea ; it is occupied sometimes by fresh and sometimes
by salt water. The deposit at the bottom of an estuary, in suitable
positions, is, therefore, an alternation of fresh water and marine strata.
In seasons of freshets the river water^ loaded with sediment and

ON COAL. • 135

perhaps bearing rafts of drift titaber, forces back the sea water, occu-
pies the estuary, and makes its deposit of clay and sand, containing
fragments of such drift timber; in seasons of low water the ocean
returns and makes its deposit^ perhaps of limestone, and so on alter-
nately. A coal field is supposed by these theorists to be the position
of an ancient estuary ; the limestone strata are the marine deposit,
the shale and sandstone the river deposit, and the coal seam the
imbedded drift timber brought down by the river from distant forests.

The objections to this theory are all that has been said in favor of
the peat bog theory. The pureness of the coal, the fine preservation
of even the tenderest parts of plants, the position of such well pre-
served specimens always on the upper surface of a coal seam, the
structureless character of the great mass of the coal, and, above all,
stumps and trunks of trees still erect, with their roots still fixed in
the clay stratum below — all this seems not only unaccountable but
impossible on this theory.

In comparing these two theories it will be seen that the first ex-
plains completely the phenomena of an individual coal seam, but
signally fails to explain the general phenomena of a coal basin, viz :
the alternation of coal seam with marine and fresh water strata ; while,
on the other hand, the second explains well this alternation, but fails
utterly to explain the phenomena of an individual coal seam. There
is, then, real and substantial evidence in favor of each, and equally
substantial objections. If this had not been the case one or the other
would have been relinquished ere this. But we find, on the contrary,
that they have both found strenuous advocates from the time geology
commenced to exist as a science until now. In every such case of
vitality in rival theories it will be found, I think, that there is a real
germ of truth in both — that both are true and both are false ; both
true in some sense, and therefore reconcilable ; and both false through
narrowness of view, through exclusiveness, through mistaking a par-
tial for a general view. I can best illustrate my meaning by referring
you to the familiar but very instructive fable of the shield, which
being distinctly seen by two knights of equally good eye sight and of
undoubted veracity, was declared by one to be white and by the other
to be black. You will recollect that, after several lances were broken
and many wounds and bruises endured to decide the knotty point, it
was discovered by some one who, strange to say, was more interested
in the truth than in the dispute, that one side ivas ivhite and the other
was black. The disputants were both right and both wrong, but
wrong only by exclusiveness, by mistaking a partial for a general
view. So it is with almost all vexed questions. There is truth on
both sides, but both err in excluding the other. We are seeking in
the right direction when we attempt to show the partialness of both
views. We have risen to a higher view, to a philosophic truth, when
we show that these two partial and apparently irreconcilable views
may be united into one ; these two surface views may be stereoscopi-
cally combined.

There is an old and much quoted adage, that " truth lies in the mid-
dle" between extreme opinions. As generally understood nothing

136 * LECTURES

can be more false or hurtful. Through its influence a merely timid
or temporizing policy is mistaken for wisdom, the "fence man" is
mistaken for the philosopher. There is another old adage, that
'■^extremes meet;" i. e., what to the superficial observer seem to be
extremes, to the deeper thinker are often really closely allied. But
the converse of this proposition, though not erected into an adage, is
even more profoundly true, viz : that what seem to be closely allied
are very often real extremes. There is often a superficial resemblance
between the highest and the lowest, so that by the unthinking multi-
tude the one is often mistaken for the other ; pride for nobility of soul,
humility for mean-spiritedness, the serenity of self-command for the
serenity of insensibility, &c. It is only in this way that the " fence
man" resembles the philosopher_, for they are as wide apart as the
poles. It is in tliis way only that truth seems to " lie in the middle,"
although we are further from it there than anywhere else. To refer
again to the fable of the shield : It would have been a poor solution
of the famous dispute to say that the shield was neither pure white
nor pure black, but midway between the two extremes ; that it was,
in fact, some shade of gray or dusky, or, perhaps, pepper and salt.
No; I repeat, truth lies not "in the middle," but the reconciliation of
extremes in the harmonious combination of apparent antagonisms.

Now, it seems to me that the phenomena of a coal seam already
enumerated prove most conclusively that the coal was formed in situ,
as in the peat swamps of the present day. At the same time the fre-
quent alternation of seams with marine and fresh water strata prove
also most conclusively that the deposit took place at the raouths of
rivers. Here are two incontestible facts. We must put them to-
gether ; we must combine them if we would make a true and sufficient
theory. I believe the more this subject is reflected on the more we
shall be convinced that coal was deposited in peat swamps at the mouths
of large rivers, and therefore subject to overflows by the river and
occasional inundations by the sea. We are to look for analogies in
existing nature, not among the bogs of Ireland, but among the river
swamps of the Mississippi.

It is well known that such peat swamps, some of them of enormous
extent, exist now on the margins and in the delta of the Mississippi
and probably many other large rivers, and that pure peat unmixed
with mud is constantly forming in these swamps^, although they are
annually flooded by the river. This seems at first incredible, when
we recollect that the river water is Iciaded with sediment, and that
sediment prevents the growth of peat plants, or at least would entirely
destroy the purity of the peat. . But this apparent anomaly has been
entirely explained by Mr. Lyell. According to this high authority,
although the peat swamps of the Mississippi are annually flooded by
river water they are entirely untouched by river mud. These favored
spots are surrounded, particularly on the side next the river, by dense
vegetation, which, acting as a sieve, completely strains the water of
its mud before it reaches the peat swamp. The water of these swamps
is therefore pure, and pure peat has been quietly depositing there for
ages.

ON COAL.

137

Let us now suppose that
there existed during the
carboniferous period a large
river, perhaps less than the
Mississippi, but with enor-
mous swamps and delta,
overgrown with rank vege-
tation far surpassing in
luxuriance anything we
know at the present day.
In the midst of such swamps
there would evidently occur
spots of great extent, the
waters of which, for the
reasons already mentioned, would never be contaminated with sedi-
ment, as at (a) fig. 13. Here for untold ages pure carbonaceous matter
would accumulate undisturbed. In the course of time the surround-
ing portions of the swamps (b) where the mud is detained would rise
by deposit of sediment, while the peat swamp (a) would remain as a
sunken country, such as exist now in the swamps of the Mississippi.
Finally, at uncertain intervals, a more than usually large freshet, or
perhaps some change in the level of the land, would deluge the swamp
with mud and bury the peat. Gradually the vegetation would re-
turn, and the former condition of things be restored, to pass again
through the same changes. We have but one other supposition to
make, viz : that the whole river swamp and delta were gradually sub-
siding during the whole carboniferous period. This is by no means
a violent supposition, but one which we have a right in this case to
make for two good reasons : 1st. We have the best evidence that
many of the large deltas of the present day are thus subsiding. This
is proved in the case of the Mississippi delta by cypress stumps in situ
below the level of the sea. 2d. The coal strata themselves give indu-
bitable evidence of gradual subsidence during the period of their de-
posit. The character of these strata and their fossils shows that they
were deposited in shallow water, but their enormous thickness (nearly
three miles in Nova Scotia) renders this clearly impossible^ unless we
suppose such subsidence ; for, if the bottom was stationary, it must
have been three miles below the surface of the water when the lowest
stratum was deposited. Now, if such subsidence went on constantly,
but slowly, so that, under ordinary circumstances, the delta could be
maintained by deposit from the river^ but at uncertain intervals, more
rapidly than the river could build up, so that the sea would again
usurp possession and make its deposit of limestone, and again more
slowly^ so that the area might again be reclaimed by the river, and
become a peat swamp, and so on alternately, we should easily, with-
out any violent hypothesis, account for all the phenomena of a coal
basin.

It will be observed that by this hypothesis the area of a coal basin
has, indeed, been successively above and below the sea-surface, but
not by successive upheaval and depression, as it has been supposed
necessary on the peat bog theory, but by the contention, with various

138 LECTURES

success, of opposing forces, aqueous and igneous, the river constantly-
building up, and igneous forces beneath as constantly striving to de-
press ; sometimes one force predominating, sometimes the other. Of
such contention we have many instances in existing nature. It is
evidently going on in the delta of the Mississippi at the present time.

It may not be possible, in the present condition of science, to picture
to ourselves all the circumstances connected with this process. Per-
haps I have already gone too far in this attempt ; but the general
facts upon which the theory rest are incontestible. Coal has almost
certainly accumulated m situ in extensive peat swamps at the mouths
of large rivers, upon ground which was slowly subsiding during the
whole period. Under these circumstances it seems not difficult to
account for all the phenomena of a coal basin. All we have to do in
future is by study of the peat swamp of the Mississippi and the phe-
nomena of delta deposit to discover the details of the process, to fill
up the outline of the picture.

There is a fact noticed by Mr. Lyell, which is strongly confirmatory
of this theory. In the sandstone of the coal measures it is common
to find trunks of trees, but only trunks — no small branches, leaves, or
tender jjarts. Moreover these trunks are observed to be mostly pines,
highland trees, while the trunks in the coal seam proper are sigilla-
ria, lepidodendron, calamites — swamp trees. Now, when we recollect
that coarse sandstone is the deposit of rapid current, does it not seem
evident that the sandstone was deposited by the freshet which over-
whelmed the peat swamp, and that the pine trunks are the remains
of drift timber brought from the highlands. Here, then, we have
ancient drift timber, but how different from a coal seam !

Let us now attempt to estimate approximatively the time necessary
to bring about these stupendous results. I believe we should never
neglect an opportunity of this kind, because the popular mind has not
yet grasped the idea of illimitable time required by geology to the
same extent as it has the idea of illimitable space required by
astronomy; and, as I believe, this is one of the greatest difficulties
with which geology has to contend.

According to Boussingault luxuriant vegetation at the present day
takes from the atmosphere about a half ton of carbon per acre annu-
ally, or 50 tons per acre in a century. Fifty tons of carbon of the
specific gravity of coal, about 1.50, spread evenly over the surface of
an acre, would make a layer of less than \ of an inch. Humboldt
makes the estimate a little higher, viz : \ an inch. We are willing
to take the higher estimate. It appears, then, that if all the carbon
taken from the air was preserved in the form of coal, our most luxu-
riant vegetation would make but a \ inch of coal in a century. But
in the coal measures the aggregate thickness of the coal seams in the
same basin is sometimes 150 feet or more. In 150 feet there are
1,800 inches, or 3,600 half inches. At the present rate of vegetation,
then, it would take 3,600 centuries, or 360,000 years^ to accumulate
this amount. But it will be objected that the vegetation of the coal
period was probably m jch more luxuriant than the present, and the
tendency of this difference would be to shorten the time. True ; but
it will be recollected that this estimate was made upon the ground

ON COAL. 139

that all the carbon was preserved. This is in the highest degree im-
probable, not to say impossible. Probably much more than half was
returned to atmosphere in the form of carbonic acid and carburetted
hydrogen. Again, we have taken no account of the enormous periods
of time during which there was no carbon deposited on the spot in
question, and represented by the intervening strata of limestone,
sandstone, and shale. The estimate we have given above, therefore,
probably falls very far short of the truth. Let us try another.

According to Messrs. Lyell and Dawson the coal strata of Nova
Scotia are about three miles in thickness at the South Joggins. At
another point, nearly 100 miles distant, (Albion mines,) they found
the thickness nearly the same. There is little danger, therefore, of
erring on the side of excess, if we take the average thickness of the
strata over the whole basin at one and a half miles. Now, the area
of this coal field, according to Mr. Lyell, is about 3,600 square miles.
This would give, as the solid contents of these strata, 54,000 cubic
miles. But we have already seen that this enormous amount of mat-
ter was almost certainly accumulated at the mouth of a great river.
Let us see how long it would take one of our great rivers to do the
work. I shall select for this purpose the Mississippi and the Ganges,
because they are both very large rivers, carrying vast amounts of
sediment, and because accurate observations have been made as to the
amount of sediment brought down by them. These observations have
been made upon the Mississippi by Drs. Forshay and Reddell, of New
Orleans, and by Captain Strachey, British engineer, upon the Ganges.
According to these observations it would take the Mississippi 2,000,000
years, and the Ganges* 3*75,000 years to perform the work. And yet
the period we are now discussing is probably not one-thirtieth, cer-
tainly but a small portion of the entire geological history of the earth.

It will no doubt be objected to this estimate that it is founded upon
a particular theory, and this theory may be incorrect, and the estimate
thus falls to the ground. In answer to this objection it is only neces-
sary to state that we are acquainted with no other circumstances under
which strata accumulate so rapidly as at the mouths of rivers. Any
other conceivable theory, therefore, would only increase the time.

Again, it will probably be objected that the agencies of nature may
have been and probably were more active in earlier periods of the his-
tory of the earth than now. Such a notion, although almost universal
among intelligent people and very prevalent even among geologists,
is, as it seems to me, utterly without foundation in reason. In refer-
ence to this point geologists may be divided into two classes. The
first and most numei'ous class hold that the agencies of nature have
gradually decreased in activity from the earliest times until now. The
other, to which Mr. Lyell and his followers belong, believes that these
agencies have acted much as they do now through all time ; that there
has been no progressive change of any kind, neither in the earth nor
its inhabitants. Now, it seems to me that it can be proved, or at

* This amaziiiff difference in favor of a smaller river is due to the fact that the Ganges,
being- a tropical river, the rains all i'all during six months, and are therefore very heavy. The
washing of the soil and resulting sediment are necessarily in proportion. The mountainous
country in which the Ganges takes its rise contributes also to the same result.

140 LECTURES

least rendered extremely probable, that neither of these theorists is
in the right ; that, in fact, while the igneous agencies have been de-
creasing in activity, the aqueous have been constantly increasing in
the same proportion. As I believe I differ from all other geologists in
my views on this pointy I deem it important to go a little more fully
into this subject.

It is generally admitted by geologists, and indeed there is good and
substantial evidence of the fact, that the earth has been gradually cool-
ing throughout all geological history from an original very high tem-
perature. We have also, as I believe most geologists will admit, good
and substantial evidence that the land has constantly increased both
in extent and in elevation with the course of time, while the ocean has
as constantly decreased in extent in the same proportion. In other
words, these two elements, land and water, have been, as it were,
gradually differentiated. Admit these two points and all the rest
logically follow.

The activity of igneous agencies depends upon the internal temper-
ature of the earth. As this has constantly decreased the igneous
agencies have also decreased in energy in the same proportion. The
aqueous agencies, on the other hand, are the result of currents of air
and water upon the surface of the earth ; and the rapidity of these
currents depends, not upon the mean surface temperature, but upon
the difference of temperature in different parts of the surface ; *. e. ,
between pole and equator or between land and water. It only remains
to prove, then, that this difference of temperature has been constantly
increasing with the course of time.

Land, as is well known, is both a better absorber and a better radi-
ator of heat than water ; i. e. , will both heat faster and cool faster
under given circumstances than water. A globe of land would be both
hotter at the equator and colder at the poles than a globe covered with
water and exposed to the same influences. Although the mean tem-
perature would be nearly the same in the two cases, the difference of
temperature would be much greater in the former than in the latter.
It follows, therefore, that as the extent of land increased and that of
the ocean decreased with the course of time the difference of tempera-
ture between pole and equator must have increased in the same proportion.
The gradual decrease of the mean temperature would evidently contri-
bute to the same result; for it is evident that with a higher mean temper-
ature a larger portion of water would exist in the form of vapor. This
excessive vapor would rise into the atmosphere and become condensed
into universal clouds, mist or fogs, but seldom, and to a very limited ex-
tent, in the earlier periods of the earth's history, into rat'w, because, as
yet, there were neither extensive high land nor cool currents sufficient
for extensive precipitation. Thus would result a thick, murky atmo-
sphere, enveloping the whole earth. The necessary effect of this would
be still further to prevent absorption of heat at the equator and radiation
at the poles, and thus to produce still greater uniformity of climate.
In the earliest geological periods, therefore, when the surface temper-
ature^ iv ova internal causes, v/as very great, and the ocean almost uni-
versal, the difference of temperature between pole and equator was
reduced to a minimum. In such a condition of things it is evident

ON COAL. 141

that tlie exchange between pole and equator currents of the aqueous
and aerial ocean must have been not only very sluggish hut perfectly
regular northeast and southwest currents in the northern hemi-
sphere, and northwest and southeast currents in the southern. In
proportion as the earth cooled the diversity of temperature between
pole and equator became greater and the exchange more rapid. In
the meantime the gradual increase in the extent and elevation of con-
tinents would introduce still greater diversity. The regular oceanic
currents, by impinging upon the continents, are reflected in various
directions, increasing still further the diversity of climate. Currents
of the air^ too, are no longer only trade winds, but also monsoons, land
and sea breezes, &c. These various currents, mingling and contend-
ing, produce the infinitely varying winds of the present epoch. But
the most important current we have not yet spoken of. Land and sea
may be considered the two poles of a circulating apparatus ; water
rises in the form of vapor at one pole, passes over through the atmo-
sphere, and is condensed on the other in the form of rain, and so back
by the rivers to the ocean. The more rapid the condensation the more
rapid the evaporation and the more rapid the circulation. Within
certain limits, (i. e., until the land is sufficient to condense all the water
evaporated from the ocean,) the amount of evaporation and condensa-
tion is in proportion to the extent and elevation of the continents.
It is evident, then, that in the earlier periods of the earth's history,
when the ocean was almost universal, although the air was saturated
with moisture, there was comparatively litfle rain ; and that just in
proportion as the continents increased in extent and elevation, evapor-
ation, and condensation would increase in the same proportion. It is
impossible to resist the conclusion, then, that from the earliest jjeriods
until now there has been a constant increase in activity and variety of
currents of ocean and atmosphere ; of wind and rain ; of cloud and
sunshine ; of fountains and rivers ; in fact of all that constitutes the
life, variety, and beauty of our beloved earth.

Thus it appears that at first igneous predominated over aqueous agen-
cies. It was this very predominance which caused uncompensated, pro-
gressive change — development of the earth as a whole ; for perfect
balance is incompatible with developement. But gradually aqueous
agencies increased in energy ; the antagonistic forces approached a
balance as the earth approached maturity, until at present the balance
may possibly be complete.

In all I have said I have had in view, of course, only the ordinary
regular operation of aqueous agencies, or what Mr. Lyell calls " causes
now in operation." I say of course, because the extraordinary, irregu-
lar operation of these agencies, such as are called ^^ debacles," &c., are
too uncertain and hypothetical, not to say improbable, to form the
basis of any reasoning whatever. I repeat, then, that during the coal
period the ordinary operation of aqueous or degrading agencies must
have been more slow than at present. The accumulation of a certain
amount of material in a river delta, other things being equal, would
require a longer time than now.

142 LECTURES

CLIMATE OF THE COAL PERIOD.

It is probable, from what evidence we have on this subject, that
the climate of the coal period was characterized by greater warmth,
greater humidity, and greater uniformity than now obtains, and that
the air was more highly charged with carbonic acid. Of the greater
warmth of the climate we have evidence in the astonishing luxuriance
and universal tropical character of the vegetation of the period. One
of the most marked peculiarities of the flora of coal everywhere is the
great relative abundance of ferns and fern allies. In the present flora
of Great Britain the ratio of ferns to flowering plants is about 1 to 35,
while in the coal flora of the same country nearly one-half of all the
known plants are ferns. In the American coal flora the ])roportion
of ferns is said to be still greater. That this abundance of ferns indi-
cales a tropical climate is shown by the fact that in the existing flora,
out of about 1,500 known species of ferns, 1,200 are confined to the
tropics^ and as we pass from the equator towards the poles the propor-
tion of ferns, steadily diminishes. The same may be said with refer-
ence to the club-mosses. It is worthy of remark, too, that although
conifers are abundant now all over the earth's surface, still those most
nearly allied to the conifers of the coal — such, for instance, as the
araucaria and salisburia of the present day — are found only in tropical
regions. Now, during the coal period, this tropical vegetation extended
as far as 75° north latitude. Tree ferns and gigantic club-mosses
covered the spot now occupied by the Mellville island. The evidence
of remarkable humidity is no less satisfactory, for it is only in warm,
7noist climates that ferns and club-mosses grow in the greatest abun-
dance and luxuriance. On some islands in the tropics and in the
south seas the abundance of ferns even approaches that of the coal
flora. In fact, as a condition of the growth of these plants, moisture
seems even more necessary than heat.

It has been objected to the greater heat of the climate, that coal was
evidently formed by accumulation of carbonaceous matter in situ as
now in peat bogs, and that peat bogs are found only in cool climates.
The answer to this objection is not diflicult. It is not the heat
immediately, but the resulting capacity for moisture, or, in common
language, dryness of the air of the tropics, which under ordinary cir-
cumstances prevents the preservation of carbon. The air is not so
constantly at or near the point of saturation. Fogs, and mists, and
clouds are not so constant as in cooler climates. But we have sup-
posed greater humidity as well as heat during the coal period. Under
these circumstances, there is no reason why peat should not accumu-
late. We see proof of this in the peat swamps at the mouth of the
Mississippi. Here we find peat accumulating in great abundance in
a climate which is yet very warm ; and we have already seen that it
is in such peat swamps, rather than in the bogs of cooler climates,
that we are to look for analogies with the peaty accumulations of the
coal period. The enormous extent of these peat swamps becomes in its
turn an additional ])roof of the great humidity of the climate.

The uniformity of climate — i. e. the comparatively equable distri-

ON COAL. 143

bution of lieat and moisture on the surface of the earth durins: the
coal period — is evidenced by the remarkable uniformity of the flora.
The general character of the coal flora was very much the same in every
portion of the earth's surface, and in many cases even the same species
are found in the most distant countries. Thus many identical species
have been found in Europe, United States, New Holland and Mell-
ville island, countries the existing flora of which differ entirely. Now,
although I cannot accede to the doctrine that diversity of climate is
the physical cause of diversity of fauna and flora, yet, whether we con-
sider the physical or the flnal cause, the result would evidently be the
same, viz : the perfect harmony between the climate and the fauna
and flora, the perfect adaptation of the one to the other.

That the atmosphere was highly charged with carbonic acid is ren-
dered probable by the astonishing luxuriance of the vegetation of the
period. Some experiments recently made by Mr. Gladstone seem to show
that up to a certain limit the growth of ferns is rendered more rapid by
the addition of carbonic acid to the atmosphere in which they grow.
This probably becomes a certainty, when we reflect upon the enormous
amount of carbon contained in the coal deposits, all of which must
have been extracted from the atmosphere. It has been estimated that
" all the forests of the United States gathered into one heap would
fail to furnish materials of a single coal seam equal to that of Pitts-
burg." Again, that " that there is laid up in the earth, in the form
of coal, six times as much carbon as now exists in the atmosphere. If
it was all returned to the air, there would be seven times as much
carbonic acid in the atmosphere as at present."

Cause of the climate of the coal. — Much speculative ingenuity has
been exhausted to little effect in attempts to account for the remark-
able climate of this period. We find here the same looseness of rea-
soning unfortunately so common among geologists when dealing with
physical subjects. The subject of most of this speculation has been
the cause of the supposed greater heat of the climate. There are two
principal methods of accounting for it. The first and most obvious
mode is by means ot the commonly received hypothesis that the earth
has cooled down to its present temperature from an original state of
incandescence. But although there is much independent evidence of
this original condition — and we think it extremely probable, therefore,
that the heat of the coal period was due, at least in part, to this cause —
yet, as Hopkins has shown, (Geol. Jour., 1853,) there are strong ob-
jections to this as the only cause. We have already said that the
surface temperature of the earth is due partly to internal and partly to
external causes. At present the surface temperature from internal
causes has become almost nothing, i. e. only one-twentieth of a degree
Fahrenheit. The increase of temperature below the surface is about
1° to sixty feet. Now, if we supposed the surface temperature from
this cause to be increased even to 1°, the increase for every sixty feet
of depth would be 20°. An increase of 10° surface temperature would
make 200° increase of temperature for every sixty feet. The springs,
except the most superficial, would all be boiling. Now, it will be
recollected that the winter temperature of Mellville, where coal is
found abundantly, is —20° Fahrenheit. It would, therefore, take near

144 LECTURES

100° additional of surface temperature to raise this to tropical heat.
This would necessitate a temperature of 2,000° at the depth of sixty-
feet, a condition of things, it would seem, utterly incompatible with
the existence of luxuriant vegetation on the surface.

The second mode of accounting for it is by means of distribution of
land and water uj3on the earth's surface. Land, as compared with
water, is both a better absorber and better radiator of heat, i. e., will
both heat faster under the influence of a source of heat, as the sun,
and cool faster when that source is withdrawn. This is familiarly
illustrated by land and sea breezes. Again : the earth at the equator
receives more heat from the sun than it radiates, while at the poles,
on the contrary, it radiates more than it receives from the sun, the
overplus in both cases being balanced by the currents of ocean and
atmosphere. If these currents could be prevented, the equator, for a
time, would get progressively warmer, and the jooles progressively
colder. We may evidently, then, look upon the earth as a body heat-
ing at the equator and cooling at the poles. Now, when we recollect
the great absorbing and radiating power of land, as compared with
water, it is easy to see that the mean temperature of the earth's surface
may be materially affected by the distribution of these elements with
reference to the two points in question. For instance, if the water be
all collected in a belt about the equator, and the poles be occupied
entirely by land, we would have the conditions most unfavorable for
heating at the equator and most favorable for cooling at the poles.
The result would be a considerable lowering of the mean temperature.
If, on the contrary _, the waters be gathered into polar oceans, leaving
an equatorial belt of land, the conditions would be most favorable for
heating at the equator and most unfavorable for cooling at the poles,
and the mean temperature would consequently rise. It is estimated
that these two extreme conditions would bring down the mean tem-
perature to 32°, or raise it to tropical heat. It is not to be supposed
that such extreme conditions ever existed ; but any approximation to
such conditions — for instance, a decided predominance of land towards
the equator or poles — would produce the same effects to a corresponding
degree. Now, it is possible that the greater heat of the coal period
may be due to some such distribution of land and water.

The fatal objection to this explanation is that we find no coal in
tropical regions. As every coal field presupposes a large river, and
therefore a considerable extent of land, the distribution of coal may
be looked upon as in a general way indicative of the distribution of
land during the period. It would seem from this that the larger
bodies of land existed in temperate and arctic rather than in tropical
regions.

But if it is impossible by distribution of land and water to account
for the greater mean temperature, it is at least easy in this way to
account for the greater liumidity and uniformity of climate which we
have found equally to characterize this period. I have already alluded
to the fact that the pala?ozoic seas were probably very wide and the
land correspondingly small in extent and low, and that such a condi-
tion of things, on account of the very limited condensation and pre-
cipitation of vapor^ would produce a very humid climate. Now, water

ON COAL. 145

being both a bad absorber and bad radiator of heat^ botb heating very
slowly and cooling very slowly, it is evident that a great predominance
of that element would produce, also, a very uniform climate. The
difference of temperature between pole and equator, and between winter
and summer, would be less than at present.

Some geologists think, with Mr. Lyell, that this uniformity and
humidity of climate is sufficient to account for the coal vegetation
without the necessity of a higher mean temperature than now exists.
If the present mean temperature was distributed more equably both
over the earth surface and over the year, the effect would be to pro-
duce cooler equator, it is true, but also much warmer high latitudes,
and particularly the winters of high latitudes would be much less
severe. The evidence is, however, it seems to me, in favor of some
elevation of the mean temperature also. It is difficult to conceive how
any uniformity of distribution of the present mean temperature, such
as would be produced by the predominance of water, could raise the
winter temperature of Mellville island to the point necessa,ry for the
luxuriant growth of tree ferns. Some increase of temperature from
internal cause seems to be necessary. I suppose, therefore, that if the
temperature of the earth from internal causes was slightly elevated,
say 10°, so that the mean temperature from 60° should become 70°,
and then this mean temperature distributed over the earth surface as
uniformly as possible, by means of a wide extent of ocean, we should
have all the conditions necessary to produce the phenomena of coal
vegetation. It will be recollected, too, that we have much indepen-
dent evidence of the cooling of the earth from an original very high
temperature.

With reference to the highly carbonated condition of the atmo-
sphere, we may suppose this to be the result of the greater activity
of carbonic acid producing causes, or else we may refer it to the
original constitution of the air — the natural process by which car-
bonic acid is given to the air, decomposition, combustion, respiration
of animals, and volcanoes, carbonated springs, &c. It will be admitted
by all that the first three may be neglected, since they return to the
air only what had been previously taken from it. The carbonic acid
supplied to the air by volcanoes and carbonated springs, according to
Bischoff, is so inconsiderable that, unless we suppose these sources
much more active than now, it would take millions of years to affect
materially the constitution of the air. But even this refuge is taken
away, when we recollect that volcanoes and springs derive their car-
bonic acid from carbonates, and chiefly from carbonate of lime, or com-
mon limestone. But limestones, according to the testimony of all who
have carefully studied them, and particularly according to the recent
microscopic observations of Sorby, are entirely of animal origin, i. e.
entirely made up of broken fragments of shells, corals, crinoids, some-
times recognizable under the microscope, sometimes reduced to impal-
pable powder. This carbonate of lime is evidently derived from
sea- water. Whence, then, does sea-water derive its carbonate of lime?
The lime is derived, beyond doubt, from igneous rocks, the carbonic
acid probably from the atmosphere, through the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, since lime exists in igneous rocks not as a carbonate but as
10 s

146 LECTUEES

a silicate. It would seem to follow, then, that springs and volcanoes,
also, only return to the atroosphere what had been previously taken
from it. The only difference between these sources and the three first
is, that while decomposition, combustion, and respiration return to
the air what had been taken from it hut a little while before, springs
and volcanoes return to the air what had been taken from it during
some previous geological epoch. Thus the atmosphere becomes the
great original source of all the carbonic acid in the world.

But whatever be the cause of the excess of carbonic acid in the at-
mosphere during the coal period, we cannot fail to see an evident and
beneficent design in its removal. Carbonic acid, as is well known, is
as poisonous to animals as it is nourishing to plants. Previous to the
coal period there lived none but aquatic animals of low order. These,
on account of low vitality, sluggish circulation, and little necessity
for rapid and constant oxygenation of the blood, have great endurance
of carbonic acid. But now the earth was prepared to receive air-
breathing animals, the atmosphere must be purified for the purpose.
This was accomplished by the astonishing vegetation of the coal period.
But observe, and never cease to admire and wonder, that the self-same
providential act which purified the atmosphere and rendered the earth
a fit habitation for reptiles and birds, had reference also to the coming
of man countless ages after, and laid up materials for his use. In the
carbon thus silently extracted from the atmosphere was buried a me-
chanical energy which, after a sleep of millions of years, was to rise
again as the great physical regenerator of the human race.

ORIGIN OF COAL.

It is now universally admitted among geologists that coal is entirely
of vegetable origin. There was a time, however, and that not many
years ago, when the vegetable or mineral origin of coal was a ques-
tion warmly contested by the best geologists ; but its vegetable char-
acter is now so firmly established and so universally admitted that
the history of the controversy has lost its interest. I will not, there-
fore, tire you with its details, but proceed to state the evidence upon
which the universal belief is founded.

First, then, the enormous profusion of fossil plants, in the form of
impressions ot leaves, trunks and branches of trees, fruits, &c., found
in immediate connexion with a coal seam, afibrds strong presumption
in its favor. In the second place, this presumption is strengthened,"
and becomes, in fact, almost certainty in the case of trunks of trees
retaining their external conformation, and under the microscope their
internal structure even to the minutest sculpturing upon their cell
walls, and yet turned to perfect coal. It might possibly be objected
that it may be a substitution of one substance for another, similar to
what takes place in petrification, where we find, also, the external
conformation and internal structure perfectly preserved, but the
organic matter all gone, that the ancient trunk having been buried
in bituminous matter and thoroughly impregnated therewith, as
particle by particle the woody matter was removed by decomposition
the bituminous matter took its place, and thus perfectly imitated its

ON COAL. 147

structure. But this objection is forever set aside, whfin, in the third
place, we subject even the most structureless coal to microscopic
scrutiny. The distinguished American microscopist, Professor Bailey,
of West Point, has been able to detect the unmistakable evidences of
vegetable structure even in the hardest anthracite. In fact it may be
affirmed that there is no coal which, under careful examination, will
not reveal a vegetable structure.

Again : All the stages of gradation between perfect wood and per-
fect coal may be traced with the greatest certainty. We find the first
stage of this process in the blackened semi-bituminized logs of our
peat bogs and deltas of the present epoch. The next stage we find in
the lignites or brown coal of the tertiary period ; the next the highly
bituminous coal of the oolite ; then the coals of the true carboniferous ;
and lastly, the anthracites of the same and lower strata. Thus we
may trace the whole embryology of coal from its immature to its most
perfect condition — may trace and identify all the intermediate links
of the chain of conditions of which wood and coal form the extreme
limits. But not only in external form and appearance, but also in
chemical composition we can trace these several stages. Wood con-
sists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; coal consists of the same ele-
ments but in different proportions. In coal the proportion of carbon
is greater and of oxygen and hydrogen less than in wood. Now, if
we compare the chemical composition of wood, peat, lignite, bitumin-
ous coal and anthracite, we find a progressive decrease in the propor-
tion of oxygen and hydrogen, until, in anthracite, we find the carbon
almost pure, and absolutely pure in graphite, if we acknowledge this
as of similar origin. This chemical evidence is, it seems to me, abso-
lutely demonstrative.

Lastly, direct experiment proves that peat, which we know to be
of vegetable origin, may, by strong pressure, be made to assume the
hardness, the density, the general appearance, and all the useful pro-
perties of coal.

Assuming, then, the vegetable origin of coal as a basis of argu-
ment, we will proceed to speak of, and to account for, the principal
varieties of coal.

All coal consists of two parts, the one combustible the other in-
combustible. It is easy to separate these from one another. If a
piece of coal is thrown into the fire the combustible portion passes
away in the form of gases, the incombustible remains behind in the
form of ash. Now, the relative proportion of these two vary infi-
nitely in different coals. We have every stage of gradation between
pure shale and pure coal, between pure incombustible and almost as
pure combustible. In the purest coal the amount of ash is only 1 to
2 per cent.; others, more impure, contain 5, 10, 20, 50 per cent, of
ash. At this point coal loses the property of ready combustion, and
with it loses also the name of coal in popular language. Bat the
geologist recognizes no remarkable change at this particular point —
no scientific reason why the name should change from coal to shale,
as there is no corresponding change of nature. From this point,
under the name of shaly coal, black slate, &c., the amount of ash.
may continue to increase and the amount of combustible matter to

148 LECTURES

decrease, until, in pure shale or slate, tlie whole becomes incom-
bustible.

Now, wood consists also of combustible matter and ash, but the
amount of ash in wood is much less than in coal — the wood of elm
contains about 2 per cent.; willow, i half per cent.; beech, ^ per cent.;
oak and pine about ^ per cent. The leaves and bark of trees, how-
ever, contain much more than this. The fully matured leaves of the
beech, willow, and elm contain, severallj'', 6.6_, 8, and 11 per cent, of
ash. It is probable, then, that 2 to 3 per cent, is a fair average of
the per centage of ash in dry vegetable matter. But even if the coal
is perfectly pure, that is, formed of vegetable matter without foreign
admixture, we should find a higher proportion of ash than in the
wood from which it was formed, for, as we have already seen, wood
loses hydrogen and oxygen in the process of change into coal. The
weight therefore diminishes, but the absolute amount of ash remains
the same^ and consequently the relative amount increases. We may
safely say, then, that if coal contains not more than 5 per cent, of ash
it may be considered quite pure; but if it contains more than 10 per
cent, it is probably impure, i. e., mixed with foreign matter. This
foreign matter being evidently the mud or clay upon which the carbo-
naceous matter was originally laid down or by which it was after-
wards covered. Hence we find the purest coal in the largest seams
and in the middle portions equally removed from the floor and roof.
As we pass towards the roof of a seam the coal passes by imperceptible
degrees into black slate, which is, in fact, mud, more or less mixed
with carbonaceous matter.

So much for the varieties of coal depending upon purity or im-
purity, upon the relative proportion of earthy, incombustible, inorganic
matter, and of combustible organic matter.

But, aside from the earthy matter, the combustible or organic matter
of coal consi^^ts of two proximate elements mechanically mixed, viz:
carbon and bitumen; charcoal is nearly pure carbon; common tar or
pitch is very similar both in chemical composition and in general ap-
pearance to bitumen. If, then, we conceive a piece of charcoal, care-
fully burnt so that the vegetable structure is perfectly retained, to be
thoroughly impregnated with pitch or tar, we should have a substance
extremely similar to common coal. These two ingredients of coal
may also be easily separated from one another. This is constantly
done in the process of coking and in the manufacture of illuminating
gas. The more volatile bitumen is driven olF in the form of gas or
collects in the pipes as coal tar and the carbon remains as coke.
Now, the relative proportion of these two ingredients also vary infi-
nitely in different coals. We may have a coal of pure carbon, or a
coal of pure bitumen, or a coal containing these two in every propor-
tion. It is the relative proportion of these which give rise to the
principal varieties of coal. A coal of pure carbon is called anthracite ;
with a small amount of bitumen, say 10 to 20 per cent., it is called
dry coals or semi-bituminous coal; when there is 20 to 30 per cent, of
bitumen it is called bituminous or coking coal ; when the per centage
is above this and the coal burns with a strong blaze and melts, it is
called fat coals. Besides these there are certain varieties depending

ON COAL. 149

upon hardness, fracture, &c., such, for instance, as cannel, wliich is a
highly hituminous coal, hut very hard, compact, fine-grained, and
remarkably free from vegetable structure ; splint coal, &c.

There are at least three possible methods of accounting for these
varieties. 1st. The cause may have existed before the coal was laid
down, in the nature of the wood of which the coals were formed.
2d. The cause may be sought for in the changes through which the
vegetable matter passed in the process of becoming coal. ^ 3d. We
may find it in changes to which the coal was subjected after it became
coal.

First. It is possible that the kind of wood may in some degree_ de-
termine the variety of coal, as, for instance, the accumulation of pines
and other resinous wood may have given rise to the fat coals, while
the non-resinous woods to the drier coals. This, I say, is possible,
particularly as we know that coniferous trees grew in considerable
abundance during the coal period ; but it seems very improbable as a
general explanation.

Second. We have already remarked that wood consists, chemically,
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and a small quantity of nitrogen, which
may be neglected ; ancl that pit coal consists of the same chemical
elements, only in different proportions, the carbon being in excess.
It is obvious, then, that in the fermentation process by which wood
is changed into coal a portion of the gases, hydrogen and oxygen,
escapes. The amount which thus escapes determines the variety of coal.

The composition of wood is variously stated by chemists ; in fact it
is not a definite compound, but consists of the mixture of several
proximate principles. It therefore varies much, according to the rela-
tive^ abundance of these principles, such as starch, sugar, cellulose,
lignire ; in other words, according to the kind or even the age of the
wood. For the harder kinds of wood, such as the oak, Liebeg gives
the formula, 0,5 H,2 O.,,. For softer kinds of wood, and par-
ticularly for succulent Vegetable substances, the proportion of carbon
is not so great. Whether, however, the formula which I have
adopted be correct for the plants of the coal, or not, would not affect
the general correctness of the reasoning upon which my conclusions
are based. The composition of bitumen varies also very much, and
for the same reason, viz : that it is composed of several proximate
principles variously mixed. It is generally given as C. Hj^g, and
a variable but small amount of oxygen, from 2 to 4. The composition
of cannel coal is given byRegnault as 0.4 H^^g Oj.

Wood = C36 B.,, 0,,

Bitumen.... = Coq H^g 0,
Cannel coal = C^^ E.^^ 0^

It will be seen that the proportion of carbon is greatest in coal and
least in bitumen, but that the most striking difference between these
substances and wood is the almost entire want of oxygen. Now, ac-
cording to Liebeg, wood in the process of decay in the open air forms
carbonic acid (0 O2) and water (II 0,) and the carbonic acid is
formed by the union of the carbon with the oxygen of the wood, while
the water is formed by the union of the hydrogen of the wood with

150 LECTURES

the oxygen of the air. As in the formation of carbonic acid, oxygen
is consumed faster than the carbon ; if the decay goes on the residue
will be at least pure carbon.

Wood =1 Cgg H33 O22

Deduct C O3 -f- H (the H unites with of air) = Cgg B.^^ 0^^ rr partly decayed.
Deduct 5 (CO3) (=05 0^0) + 11 H = C30 H^q O^q r=: further decayed.

But if decomposition take place out of contact, or with limited sup-
ply of air, the process is more complex. The carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen combine with one another in various proportions, and the pro-
ducts of decomposition are : carbonic acid (C 0^,,) carburetted hydro-
gen (C H2 or C, H,,) and water (H 0,) and thus result the deadly
choke-damp (C 0^) and the dreaded fire-damp (C H.^) of the coal
mines.

Let us now see how, according to this theory, the different varieties
of coal may be formed.

Wood = C,6 H^, 0,
Deductll CO, =:Cii O22 I ^ r tt n

Deduct 22 H oxydized by the air ] " ^n -^22 ^-'at

and twenty-five atoms of carbon alone remain ; and this is the com-
postion of pure anthracite. Again : If decomposition takes place out
of contact of air, bitumen or bituminous coal is formed. Thus —

Wood = C,6 H,, O22

Deduct 9 C 0, = 0, 0,, )

Deduct 3 HO = " H, 3 f = C^^ H , O^i

Deduct 3 C H^ = C3 H^^ ) ■

The remainder is cannel coal = 0,4 H^, ^

Again :

Wood = C36 H^o O22

and if from this we deduct

10 atoms carbonic acid =Cio 0., 0? ^ -rr p.

3 atoms defiant gas = C ^ H ^ " \ ~ ^'^ ^ <^ ^^'«

the remainder is bitumen zi: C20 H^g 2

In the same manner, by supposing the union of these three elements
to take place in various proportions, under circumstances of more or
less imperfect access of air, we may, without difficulty, account for all
the different varieties of coal.

There can be no doubt, it seems to me, that bituminous coal is ac-
tually formed by this play of affinities. But with reference to the
extremes of this series, viz: anthracite and bitumen, naptha, &c., it
seems rnuch more probable that these have been the result of an after
change, the last of the three possible causes with which we started.

In the third place,, then, we have many reasons for believing that
bituminous coal is really the normal coal, and that which is always
formed by the play of affinities, of which we have spoken above, and
that anthracite and bitumen are the result of the action of igneous
agency upon such bituminous coal.

ON COAL. 151

We have already said that bituminous coal may be considered as a
mechanical mixture of carbon and bitumen, and these two may easily
be separated by heat. Anthracite is the residue after separation, and
bitumen and naptha is the matter separated by distillation and con-
densed elsewhere. As in the gas manufactories we find bituminous
coal decomposed — a part remaining behind as coke, (pure carbon,) a
part passing off as gas and a part collecting in pipes as coal tar — so
in the laboratory of Nature coal beds subjected to heat give rise to the
same three substances ; anthracite is left behind, coal gas is dis-
charged into the atmosphere and bitumen collects in subterranean
pipes and gives rise to naptha and bituminous springs, pitch lakes,
&c. Thus, the enormous lake of boiling pitch in Trinidad is, proba-
bly, in connexion with coal strata below. If so, such coal will be left
in the condition of anthracite. All the strata of the earth are subject
to change under the influence of heat: limestones become marbles,
clays become slate. This change is called by geologists metamor-
phism. Now, the proposition is that anthracite is metamorphic coal.
The proofs of this proposition are as follows :

In the first place, anthracite is never found except in regions very
much disturbed by igneous agency, the strata highly inclined, contorted
and broken ; and even in the same coal field the coal is anthracite or
bituminous, according as the region is more or less disturbed. Thus,
in eastern Pennsylvania^ where the coal strata are very much con-
torted and sometimes perpendicular, (fig. 9,) the coal is all anthra-
cite ; while in western Pennsylvania, where the strata are nearly
horizontal, the coal is bituminous. The actual transition of anthra-
cite into bituminous coal cannot be studied with advantage in Penn-
sylvania, because the coal strata have been carried away to such an
extent that only outlying patches are left ; but in Wales the same
seam may be traced from the bituminous to the anthracite condition ;
so that there can be no doubt that, in this case at least, anthracite is
metamorphic coal.

Second. Anthracite is never found except in metamorphic rocks,
and conversely all coal contained in metamorphic strata is anthracite.
This universal connexion of two things proves, as it seems to me,
beyond doubt, their community of origin ; that they have a common
cause. Thus, in the lowest stratified or primary rocks, where the
rocks are altogether metamorphic, and even in the silurian, where a
less complete metamorphism is almost universal, what little coal is
found is always anthracite. In the coal measures we have coal both
bituminous and anthracitic, but the anthracite always in altered and
the bituminous in unaltered rocks. As we pass upward we find
anthracite more rare, because metamorphism is more rare and local ;
and when metamorphism entirely disappears in the tertiary rocks we
find that anthracite disappears also.

Third. Trap dykes, as it is well known, are formed by the out-
breaking and outpouring of melted rock (lava) forced up through
the superincumbent stratified rocks, which are altered and rendered
metamorphic by the contact. Now, when a dyke passes through coal
strata the coal is alwa,ys thoroughly coked by the contact ; that is, it
is changed into a substance identical in chemical composition with

152 LECTURES

anthracite. These two substances are doubtless similar in their
origin as well as in chemical composition, the great difference in their
density being due only to the pressure under which the change took
place. Anthracite is produced slowly under enormous pressure, while
coke is produced under ordinary atmospheric pressure, and the rapid
disengagement of gas renders it light and porous.

THE PLANTS OF THE COAL — THEIR STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES.

Geology is the latest developed among the sciences. This is not an
accidental phenomenon in the history of human intellectual progress,
but one absolutely necessary, and the cause of which we can clearly
trace. The great divisions of science in the order of their complexity
are mathematics, mechanical sciences, chemical sciences, organical
sciences, and geology. The first is limited to ideas of number and
quantity ; the second comprises, in addition to the preceding, ideas of
force ; the third, in addition, ideas of chemical affinity ; the fourth, in
addition to the preceding, ideas of life, and the last, in addition to
all the preceding, ideas of historic development. Now, this order of
increasing complexity has necessitated a corresponding order of devel-
opment in time. It is impossible that mechanics and physics should
have assumed even the form of a science until mathematics was
already mature. And so of the rest. Together they form a column,
of which mathematics is the pediment and geology the capital ; or,
rather, I should say, a magnificent temple, of which mathematics
forms the solid foundation and geology the heaven pointing spire ; the
most wonderful and perfect work which human genius has erected in
honor of Deity.

It is evident, therefore, that geology was compelled to await the
development of other sciences. She could not come forward until her
time was fulfilled, for her problems are the most complex and difficult
which are to be found in the whole range of science. It is evident,
also, that the geologist must be thoroughly accomplished in all de-
partments of science. He must be thoroughly grounded in mechanical
and physical sciences, or how shall he reason successfully on the up-
heaval of continents, the formation of mountain chains, the dynamics
of earthquakes and volcanoes, the actions of currents, &c. He must
be familiar with chemistry, for disintegration and consolidation of
rocks, the deposits of springs, the formation of coal^ are chemical
quebtions. Still more necessary to him is an acquaintance with organic
science, for the organic remains are the Divine hieroglyphs in which
the history of the earth is recorded. It is this very complexity^ this
very elevation in the scale, this almost universal culture required of
her votaries, which constitutes the greatest obstacle in the way of real
progress in this science. I know it is thought by many that geology
is an easy and simple science, that any one, by industrious collection
of fossils and persevering exercise of memory^ may be a good geolo-
gist ; but this is a sad and very pernicious error. In so vast a science
collectors of materials must be numerous, but the philosophical gen-
eralizer is very rare. In so vast an edifice the fetchers of stone and
brick and mortar are innumerable, but heaps of brick and stone and

ON COAL. 153

mortar do not constitute a temple ; the one may be accumulated by
the human hand, the other can be constructed only by the human
mind, and in this case only by genius of the highest order. In fact,
a master builder in this sc:ence has not yet lived. No man has yet
been able to sketch the outlines of this noble work with a hand so firm
and decided that all shall labor in harmony and mutual confidence,
and the work shall thenceforward proceed with steadiness and cer-
tainty.

In some sense, therefore, all departments of science may be looked
upon as the handmaids of geology. And it is curious and instructive
to observe how, in reward for their services, she stamps each one with
the seal of philosophy ; how each science becomes, in her service,
more comprehensive, more philosophic, more exact. The problems
in physics and chemistry which geology proposes are so difficult, the
conditions under which well known forces act are so numerous and
complicated, and the scale on which they operate are so vast, that
every formula must be revised, every law must be made more exact.
Thus, under the guidance of geology, these two old and mature
sciences seem entering on a new and higher career.

But perhaps the most remarkable instance of the favorable change
and philosophic character which the advent of geology has impressed
upon other departments of science is to be found in the case of natural
history.

The zoology and botany of the last age were little more than the
knowledge of the names and external forms of species, and their ar-
rangement according to an arbitrary system of classification. But it
is evident that such zoology and botany can be of little service to
geology. The external form of an extinct species is seldom seen.
G-enerally all that we have of an animal is a few bones or teeth, some-
times a single scale ; of a plant, a fragment of wood or a leaf, and the
problem which geology proposes is, from such meagre materials to
reconstruct the whole organism. To the unskilled this seems impos-
sible. But the harmony which exists between all parts of an organ-
ism is so perfect that each may be said to necessitate every other. A
complete knowledge of the laws of organization would thus enable us,
from any one part^ to reconstruct the whole. One strain of song in-
stantly suggests all that is necessary to make the harmony complete.
Thus a profounder knowledge of animals and plants becomes neces-
sary — a knowledge not only of external forms, but also of internal
structure and the harmonious relation of parts. Classification is no
longer an ingenious artifice to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge,
but becomes the highest expression of knowledge, the epitome of na-
ture. Thus, from a mere mass of barren details, natural history has
risen to the highest philosophic rank. Even astronomy has been
compelled to take a lesson of philosophy from her younger sister.
She must relax the severity of her dogmas. She must modify some-
what the absoluteness of her assertions concerning the staoility of all
things, fenced, though they be, round about with mathematical for-
mula3, now since the idea of infinite time has been introduced by
geology. ^' The causes which tend to destroy the stability of the solar
system," says astronomy, "are infinitely small, and therefore may

154 LECTDEE8

be rejected from the equation." True, but infinitely small quantities
accumulating through infinite ages become finite, in fact, become very
important ; for it is these very same infinitely small residual quanti-
ties, rejected by astronomy as of no value, which, by their accumula-
tion, constitute the progressive development of the earth and solar
system. Without such small uncompensated forces history, whether
geological, national, or individual, would be impossible. An insect
philosopher, the span of whose life is a single day, attentively ob-
serving the daily cycle of the healthy human body, might rationally
assert the stability of the human system. The body, at the end of
twenty-four hours, has come back to the same spot whence it started.
At least the variation, if any, must be infinitely small, and therefore,
for all purposes of insect life, may be rejected as of no value. And
yet it is the accumulation of this same infinitely small variation which
constitutes the growth and progressive development of the body. This
is not an exaggerated illustration, for 2,000 years, the whole age of
astronomy, is but one day, yea, but a small fraction of a day, in the
geological history of the earth.

The flora of the coal period is more complete than that of any pre-
vious or succeeding geological epoch. The whole number of fossil
species of plants known is probably not far from 2,000. Of these,
according to estimates made more than ten years ago, about 816 are
from the " coal measures." The constant additions which have been
made since that time, particularly by Dr. Newberry and others, from
an examination of the coal fields of our own country, would probably
bring the number up to at least 900. Probably, therefore, nearly if
not quite one-half of all known fossil plants belong to this period. I
have already said that a coal seam is made up of the remains of such
plants, yet it is not in the coal seams themselves that we find the best
preserved specimens of coal plants. On the contrary, the vegetable
matter is here so thoroughly disorganized that it is only by means of
the microscope that we are able to detect its original structure. It is
rather in the associated shale strata that the most beautiful impres-
sions occur, particularly in the overlying hlach slate. Between the
thin sheets of this slate the stems and leaves are as perfiectly preserved,
every vein and nerve, as between the leaves of the botanist's herbarium.
This fact, viz : that the well-preserved plants are always found in
abundance in this position, and never in the coal seam proper has, as
it seems to me, an important bearing upon the theory of coal de-
posit. But of this we shall speak again in another place. You have
here before you a magnificent slab of black slate, profusely covered
with beautiful impressions of leaves and stems of ferns and calamites.
In this case, as perhaps in most others, the impressions, though well-
defined, are not conspicuous at a distance, because the color of the
ground and of the figures are so nearly alike, but in some cases, when
the shale background is light-colored, the relief of the coal-black
impressions is very beautiful. The newly exposed roof of a coal mine
has been compared by Dr. Buckland to the most magnificent fresco
painted ceilings of Italian buildings.

But although the number of species of coal plants is so great, yet

ON COAL. 155

coal is supposed to be composed principally of tlie remains of four
families only, viz : Ferns, Sigillaria', Lepidodendrons , and Cdlamiles.
The abundance of individuals belonging to these families is so great,
and their size so enormous, that they must have given character to
the vegetation of this period, and may therefore be taken as represen-
tatives of its flora. As such, therefore, I shall consider them, and it
will be our object in this lecture to give you some idea of their appear-
ance and affinities.

There are certain periods in the history of our race upon which we
are apt to gaze with peculiar interest and admiration — when the
human mind, awakening from its sleep of barbarism, rejoices in the
ostentatious display of its strength and its beauty, so in the history
of our earth, the period of the coal stands out beyond all others as the
^^ heroic oge," when nature seemed to delight herself in the fantastic
exercise of power, and to exhaust her strength in the production of
vegetable giants and monsters. It will be my object to show that this
age, although to the popular mind it may appear a mythological age,
an age of wonders and prodigies, an age to which ordinary principles
of reasoning are inapplicable ; that this age is but one chapter, a page,
in a connected history^ one step in the accomplishment of the unvary-
ing plans of Deity.

A glance at these drawings of coal plants will give you some general
idea of the strange forms which constituted the flora of this period.
But it is not only a vague general idea of external form which I wish
to give you ; we have already had too much of this in popular lectures
on geology. If we would grasp the real thought expressed in the
vegetation of this period ; if we would understand the true significance
of the coal flora in the Divine economy ; if we would catch the key-
note of this Divine harmony, we must take more than a superficial
glance — we must look deeply, thoughtfully, reverently. But, in order
to make myself understood, I find it necessary to step a little out of
the way, to give you a sketch of the great divisions of the vegetable
kingdom and the characteristics of each, so that, by comparison, we
may be able to determine the position of the coal plants. Whatever
is noble and elevating in science must be equally interesting to every
intelligent mind ; but in order to appreciate it, it is absolutely neces-
sary to master in some degree uninteresting technicalities. The jewel
is inclosed always in an unattractive casket of lead ; we must find the
key before we can gain the prize.

The vegetable kingdom, then, is divided into two great classes: the
Fhcenogajns, or flowering plants, and the Cryptogams, or flowerless.
The Cryptogams may be again divided into cellular and vascular Cryp-
togams. The cellular Cryptogams, such as the mosses, fungi lichens,
sea weeds, &c., consist entirely of cellular tissue, while the vascular
Cryptogams, such as ferns, club-mosses, equisetaceae, (horse-tails,) com-
bine the vascular tissue with the cellular. The Phoinogams may also
be divided into two sub-classes, viz : the Gymnosperms, or naked seeded
plants, and the Angiosperms, or covered seeded plants. The Gymnos-
perms bear their seeds naked or exposed, either near the base of an
open capillary leaf, as in the pine family, {Co7iifers,) fig. 12, or else

156

LECTURES

Fig. ii.

Fig. 13.

on its edges, as in the cycas family. Figs. 12 and 13 represent cross

sections of the capiUary leaves of naked
seeded plants. The Angiosperms, on the
contrary, bear their seeds enfolded within
the capillary leaf or seed vessel, (figs. 14 and
15,) as in all the ordinary flowering plants.
The Angiosperms are again subdivided into
3fonocolyledons, (one cotyledon or seed leaf
in the embryo,) fig. 16, and Dicotyledons,
(t wo seed leaves in the embryo,) fig. 17.

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

Cryptogams,

( Dicotyledons, } k -

Pheenogams, ] Monocotyledons, \ Angiosperms.
( Conifers & Cycada^^ Gymnosperms.

Vascular Cryptogams.
Cellular Cryptogams.

Now, the most important means of determining the families of coal
plants are the internal structure of the stem and the venation of the
leaves. Generally, indeed, these are the only means at oi'ir command.
Let ns inquire, then, how the great divisions of the vegetable king-
dom are characterized in these respects.

Among Phcenogams there are two very distinct types or plans of
internal structure of the stem, viz : the Exogenous, or outside-growing,
and the Endogenous, or inside-growing ; the one represented by the
hard-wood trees and shrubs, the other by the palms, canes, grasses,
&c. On cross section of an exogen (fig. 18) we find three distinct
zones of tissue. In the centre a zone of cellular tissue, the pith ;
exterior to this a zone of wood, and around this again a zone of cellular
tissue, the bark. The zone of wood is, moreover, subdivided into con-
centric rings, which represent the annual layers of growth, and sepa-
rated into wedges by radiating lines of cellular tissue (silver grain)
connecting the cellular tissue of the pith with the cellular tissue of

the bark. In the Endogens,
on the contrary, we have the
woody tissue in the form of
thread-like bundles, irregu-
larly interspersed amongst
the cellular. The dry stalk
of an Indian corn is a fa-
miliar illustration of this
structure. If such a stalk is
broken across and the two
parts careiuUy separated , the
thread-like bundles of woody and vascular tissue are observed to draw

Fig. 18

ON COAL. 157

out from the softer cellular tissue. Here we o'bserve no distinct pitli ; on
distinct bark separable from the wood ; the wood not collected into a
distinct zone; not arranged into concentric layers, nor divided by me-
dullary rays. The exogenous plan of structure includes the Dicoty-
ledons and the pine and cycas families ; while endogen may be con-
sidered synonymous with monocotyledon.

In the vascular Cryptogams the woody and vascular tissue is still
differently arranged. The stem of a club-moss, for instance, consists
of a mass of cellular tissue inclosed in a rind of the same tissue more
condensed, with a single central thread of vascular tissue. Sometimes
there seems to be in the centre of this something like a very imperfect
pith. The cellular Cryptogams, as their name indicates^ consist
entirely of cellular tissue.

It will be observed that, in the general structure and mode of
growth, the family of pines (Gymnosperms) is allied to the highest
order of plants, viz: the Dicotyledons, while in its reproduction it is
below the Monocotyledons. This latter position is beyond doubt the
true one ; and a more attentive examination of the wood of pine in
comparison with that of Dicotyledons will confirm us in this view.
As this is a very important point, and as much false theorizing on
the subject of the plants of the coal has been the result of a miscon-
ception of the true position of conifers, I will dwell a little more
minutely than I should have otherwise considered it necessary to do.

The wood oi' Dicotyledons consists of two dis- Fis. 20.

tmct tissues, viz: the woody tissue jiroper and the
vascular tissue. The woody tissue proper is com-
posed of elongated cells, too small to be distin-
guished by the naked eye, while the vascular tissue
is composed of very much larger cells or tubes.
The visible pores in such wood as oak^ chestnut,
vine, &c., belong to this tissue. Fig. 20 repre-
sents cross section of two wooden wedges, with
their medullary rays. The comparative size of
the wood cells and the vessels is well shown. The
difference is often much greater than in the figure.
In pine wood, on the contrary, there is no distinction of woody and
vascular tissue; but the so-called wood consists entirely of an open,
thin-walled tissue, intermediate in every respect between the vas-
cular and the woody layer and thinner walled than the true woody,
but smaller than the true vascular. This is shown in the cross
section, (fig. 21.) On a longitudinal section, (fig. 22,) the cells
of pine wood are marked by large disc-like elliptical plates, which
are entirely characteristic of this family. The smallest fragment
is sufficient to distinguish it with the utmost certainty.

Now, if we trace the development of the tissues, either by passing
from the lowest to the highest plants, or from the earliest embryonic
to the mature condition of one of the higher plants, we shall find that
all the different kinds of tissue are modifications of the cellular ; that
there is a more and more complete differentiation of form and special-

158

LECTURES

<

Fig. 23.

Figs 21 and 22. izatioQ of fuDctioii as development progresses.
The longitudinal system is first formed by modifi-
cation of the cellular, and then this is again differ-
entiated into the two forms of woody and vascular
tissue. Now, in the pine family, this last differ-
entiation has not taken place. So far as its tissues
are concerned, therefore^ this family should rank
helow all other flowering plants.

Let us next examine the different classes of
plants with respect to the venation of their leaves.
With respect to their venation the leaves of
plants are divided into three distinct kinds, viz :
the reticulated, or netted veined, the parallel
veined, and the dicholomously veined. In the
first the veins branch and again run together,
forming an inextricable net-work, (Fig. 23, a.)
In the second the veins run parallel from one end
of the leaf to the other, connected only by slender
transverse bars, so that the leaf may be torn into

parallel rib-
bons. (Fig.
23, &.) In the
third the veins
branch, but do
not run to-
gether again.
(Fig. 23, c and
d.) The first
is characteris-
tic of the Dico-
tyledons ; the
second of the*
3Ionocotyle-
dons; and the

third of the Ferns — perhaps of the vascular Cryptogams generally.
The leaves of cellular Cryptogams are veinless. In this enume-
ration it will be observed I have not mentioned the Conifers. To
which class, then, do the leaves of the pine family belong? Undoubt-
edly to the third. This fact cannot be easily demonstrated upon
leaves of ordinary pines, for their cylindrical leaves show no veins,
or, if visible, they seem to be parallel. But there are a few broad-
leaved Conifers, and these always show the dichotomous branch-
ing of the veins in the most unmistakable manner. In the
Salisburia, for instance, we have as beautiful an instance of this
mode of branching as can be found among the Ferns. The leaves
of this Conifer are about two or three inches broad, the shape and
venation very similar to that represented in Fig. 23, c, but much
more beautii'ul. This close alliance in the venation of the leaves
between the pines and the ferns is another evidence of the low
position of the former among flov.'ering plants. Thus it appears that
this remarkable family of plants is allied to the highest Fhcenogams

ON COAL. 169

in the general structure of its wood, and to the Cryptogams in the
venation of its leaves. If there was no other evidence we might he in
douht as to its true position ; but the simplicity of its reproduction
and of its tissues settles the question, as it seems to me, forever.
There are other points of alliance between pines and club-mosses,
which it would lead me too far to notice. In fact this family seems
to be, in a remarkable degree, both a connecting and an embryonic
type, and therefore, as we shall presently see^ eminently calculated
to throw light upon the plants of the coal.

Let us now attempt to apply these principles in the interpretation
of the plants of the Coal, and particularly of the four families already
taken as representatives of the flora of this period, viz: the Ferns ,
Sigillarice, Lepidodendron, and Calamites. We shall confine our atten-
tion principally to the second and third. With reference to the
Fertis there is little dispute ; their unmistakable resemblance to the
ferns of the present flora leave no doubt as to their afiinities. I will
only remark, in passing, that many of the coal genera of this family
seem to have affinities also with the Cycadce and Coni/erce. With
reference to the other three families the difficulty is much greater^
they are generally supposed, however, to be most nearly allied to the
Lycopodiacece (club-mosses) and the Equisetacece, (horse-tails ;) the
Sigillarice and Lepidodendrons being considered most nearly allied to
the club-mosses, and the Calamites to the horse-tails. If so, then we
are at once struck with the enormous size of the coal plants in com-
parison with their humble representatives at the present day. Sigil-
larice and Lepidodendrons attained the amazing height of seventy to
one hundred feet, and a diameter of five to six feet, while the club-
mosses of the present day seldom rise to an altitude of more than a
few inches. Calamites attain a diameter of fourteen or fifteen inches,
and a height of thirty to forty feet, while the horse-tails are among
our humblest plants. This enormous difference in size is sufficient of
itself to lead us to suspect that these are not true club-mosses and
horse-tails. Let us examine them more closely.

Here you have rude sketches of these families. This is Sigillaria.
This genus is so little known as to its external appearance that I
cannot represent or speak of it with any confidence. In almost every
case it is ibrmed as a straight cylindrical trunk, without branches or
leaves. So that, although this plant is so common, yet its mode of
branching and the form of its leaves is still a matter of dispute among
botanists. In a few cases Sigillaria trunks have been found to bifurcate
and produce long cylindrical branches. In a single, perhaps doubt-
ful, case {Sig. Icpidodendrifolia) leaves have been found similar to
Lepidodendron. One of two views seems probable : either that many
so-called Lepidodendrons, so commonly found in connexion with
Sigillaria, are the branches of the latter, in which case the branching
and foliage of this genus are similar to tbe Lepidodendron, or else
that Sigillaria, like tree ferns, were generally branchless, and that the
large fronds, (generally supposed to belong to Ferns,) which are po
commonly found strewed in profusion about their bases, were their
leaves. What I have represented by these sketches are therefore
ideal restorations on the former hypothesis, rather than actual speci-

160

LECTURES

mens. You will observe, then, the sparse dichotomous branching, the
cylindrical limbs with blunt extremities, so characteristic of the club-
moss, but which is found^ also, in some species of pines. Like the club-
moss, too, the leaves are crowded, pointed, strung along the stem for
some distance, but longer, slenderer, and more nearly resembling the
leaves of the pine. On this trunk you will observe the seal-like im-
pressions {sigilla) characteristic of this family, and from which its
name is derived. Also longitudinal depressions running from one
end of the trunk to the other, and along which the sigilla are arranged
in vertical rows. Thus each trunk of a Sigillaria resembled a noble
fluted doric ^column beautifully but variously sculptured the pattern
changing with the species. These sigillae are evidently leaf scars,
and therefore indicate the leaf arrangement peculiar to this family.

The Lepidodendron, of which you have here a drawing, was still
more like the club-moss, the crowded leaves being shorter, rhomboidal,
and more scale like, the same long, slender, cylindrical, sparse dichot-
omous branches. But even here we find an almost equal resem-
blance to Conifers, for it will be recollected that in a large number
of Conifers as the Juniperus, the Araucaria, &c., the same rhomboidal,
j)laited scale-like leaves prevail. The impression of a shoot of an Araii-
caria could scarcely be distinguished from that of some species of club-
moss, except by superior size of the former. In its fructification there
is the same difficulty, for it is doubtful whether it most nearly resem-
bled the cone of pines, or the cone-like fructification of club-mosses,
although the recent investigations of Hooker leave little doubt that
the latter is the truer view. All that we know, then, of the external
appearance of these families lead us to the conclusion that they were
intermediate between pines and club-mosses, and that the Sigillaria
approached most nearly the pines, and the Lejndodendj^ons most nearly
the club-mosses.

Let us next see what light is thrown upon this subject by examina-
tion of the internal structure.

Fig. 24. Fi". 25.

Cross section of Sigillaria: a the pith; h the
woody cylinder; c the cellular tissue; d the
rind; ethe bundles ot vascular tissue running
from central sheath to the leaves.

Cross and longitudinal section of Sigillaria;
letters represent same as in fig. 24; /// the
leaves.

ON COAL.

161

If we make a section of the stem of a Sigillaria, (figs 24 and 25,) we
find externally a hai^k, or, more probably, a rind{a) of condensed cellu-
lar tissue, sometimes a half or an inch thick; within this an enormous
amount of loose cellular tissue, (c,) often 2 feet or more thick. Through
the centre of this runs a slender sheath(J) of vascular or woody tissue,
which in a Sigillaria 5 feet in diameter is not more than 3 inches in
diameter ; a mere thread of vascular in the midst of a mass of cellular
tissue. This again incloses a small pith (a) which occupies the very
centre of the trunk. These vascular cylinders, with their inclosed pith,
being the most indestructible portion of the trunk, are often found
alone, and described under the name of Endogenites. Figs. 24 and 25
represent cross and longitudinal ideal sections of this plant, (a) the
cellular tissue of the pith, (h) the vascular or woody sheath, (c) the
mass of cellular tissue between the vascular sheath and (d) the rind,
(e) slender vascular bundles connecting the leaves with the central
sheath. Upon closer examination of this woody or vascular cylinder
(b) it is found to consist of concentric layers, somewhat analogous to the
layers of growth of exogenous trees, and divided into wedges by medul-
lary rays, like the tree exogens. Upon still closer examination, how-
ever, of a good cross section under a microscope (fig. 26) no distinction
of vascular and woody tissue, such as is found in the wood of Dicotylo-
dons, is observed, but the whole is made up of one kind of tissue, open
and thin-walled, in comparison with woody tissue proper, but closely
resembling the wood of pines. But a longitudinal section shows no
disc-like markings such as characterize the wood of Conifers, but

Figs. 26 and 27. Fig. 28.

Fig. 28. A cross section and longitudinal section
of a Sigillaria. The letters a, b, e, d, e represent
same a.s in previous figs. 1, 2, 3 are the 3 layers
of the vascular cylinder 6, wi isa medullary ray'.

reveals the fact that it consists entirely of spiral vessels, (figs. 27 and
27;) and that, therefore, the sheath of the Sigillaria consists of vascular
rather than of woody tissue. In consequence of the great predomi-
nance of cellular tissue, these stems, as well as those of the Lepido-
dendron and Calamites, are generally found very much flattened bv
pressure. ''

11 s

162

LECTURES

A cross and longitudinal section of the Lepidodendron shows
similar but still less highly organized structure, (figs. 29 and 30.)

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

The vascular sheath is still smaller, extremely thin, forming on
cross section an exceedingly narrow zone. It is moreover not separated
into concentric rings nor divided by medullary rays. The cellular
tissue both within and without the sheath is very open and loose.
The rind {d) consists of similar cellular tissue, but more condensed,
and there seems to be no line of demarcation, but a gradual transition;
in other words, there is apparently no true bark. Here, also, we find
long slender bundles of vascular tissue (spiral vessels) connecting the
leaves with the central sheath. Microscopic examination of the vas-
cular sheath shows no sign of woody tissue.

Calamites we know much less about, but it would seem that in them
there is a still greater predominance of cellular tissue, if, indeed, they
possessed any vascular tissue at all. They are often found pressed
perfectly flat, indicating that they were either hollow, or more probably
consisted of a simple rind of condensed cellular tissue, inclosing looser
tissue of the same kind. Of this plant, however, we know too little to
draw any conclusion as to its affinities.

Now, if we examine by sections a common Lycopodmm, or club-moss,
we find an internal structure closely resembling what we have found
in Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. Externally a thin but tough rind,
or epidermis of condensed cellular tissue, inclosing a mass of very loose
cellular tissue, through the centre of which runs a slender thread of
vascular tissue, sending off in every direction still slenderer threads of
the same to the crowded leaves. Upon longitudinal section the vascu-
lar tissue is found to be chiefly spiral ducts. The principal difference
between this structure and that of the Lepidodendron is that the latter
has a more perfect pith, and in this respect seems to be allied to the
higher order of plants. But I am convinced, from personal examina-
tion of the Lycopodium, that its vascular thread was the outline of both
pith and medullary rays. I call more particular attention to this
observation, because^ as far as I know, it is new, and as it seems to me
calculated to throw much light on the affinities of coal plants.

This very remarkable structure, viz : the existence of a slender
central thread of vascular tissue in the midst of a large mass of very
loose cellular, does not exist, I believe, among existing plants in the

ON COAL. 163

mature condition, except in the family of club-mosses. In tlie embry-
onic state, however, of the Dicotyledons we find something similar.
If we make a cross section of a Dicotyledon soon after germination,
t. e., while the first two or three pairs of leaves are expanding, we will
find a structure very similar to that of the Lepidodendron. We find
in the centre a small pith surrounded by a thin zone of vascular tissue,
(mostly spiral vessels,) around this a large mass of cellular tissue, des-
tined to become partly bark and partly wood_, but which is yet neither
one nor the other, and the whole inclosed in a thin epidermis of con-
densed cellular tissue.

Thus it appears, both from external and internal examination, that
these families combined the characters of pines and club-mosses. Or
if we are disposed to attach moro importance to their exogenous affini-
ties, and thus to place them among the pines, then we must compare
them with the earliest embryonic condition of this class. The true
view, I am convinced, is, that they are both connecting and embryonic
types, or connecting types with embryonic characters. In fact, all
embryonic types seem to be more or less connecting, and conversely
connecting types, at least in Falceontology, are also embryonic. Now,
what I have said of the Sigillaria and Lepidodendron is equally true,
I believe, of other coal plants. I have taken these two because they
are better known ; but all that is known concerning other genera
seem to point in the same direction. They all seem to be more or less
connecting types. The Sphenophyllum, Noggerathia, and probably
many of the so-called Ferns of this period are of this character.

Let us inquire now what important conclusions may be drawn from
what we have seen of the affinities of these plants :

1. The distinction of plants into Cryptogams and Phcenogams is
considered by botanists a fundamental one. Many recent investiga-
tions, however, have combined to throw some doubt upon the entire
distinctness of these classes. The study of the Coal Plants, particu-
larly of the two families Sigillaria and Lepidodendron , it seems to me
entirely destroys this as a fundamental division, or, at least, as one at
all comparable to the great divisions of the animal kingdom. The
pines belong uaequivocally to the Phcenogams and the club-mosses to
the Cryptogams. If the Sigillaria and Lepidodendron are connecting
links between these two families then the classes to which they belong
can no longer be considered as fundamentally distinct types or plans
of structure. The study of animals, both existing and extinct, have
confirmed the wonderful generalization of Cuvier. The four types —
Vertebrata, Articidala, 3IoUusca, and Radiata — were as distinct during
the palaeozoic period as now. If such distinct plans of structure
exist in the vegetable kingdom at all they have not yet been indicated
as such by botanists. The distinction into exogen and endogen would
seem more likely to be fundamental, as this is apparently not a mere
distinction of rank or complexity of structure, but of plan of struc-
ture. If 80, then we shall probably be able to trace these two types
downwards until, overleaping the distinction of Phcenogams and
Cryptogams as one of complexity of structure only, they reach the
lower confines of the vegetable kingdom.

2. We have seen that the plants of the coal are most_, if not all of

164 LECTURES.

them, connecting types with embryonic characters. This is not an
isolated fact, hut one which meets us at every step in the course of our
study of the geologic history of the earth. It is hut one illustration
of a general latv, a law of the deepest philosophic import, and yet one
which is still very imperfectly recognized among geologists. The law
may he thus stated : The first introduced animals or plants of any
class have heen combining types, i. e., have united within themselves
the characters of several families, now distinct and even widely sepa-
rated. Thus the first vertebrates introduced were fishes, but not
typical fishes, as we might be led a priori to expect, but Placoids and
Ganoids, families which, particularly in their earlier lepresentatives,
united with ordinary fish characters others which connected them with
the class of reptiles, and even of mammals; and still others which
connect them with the embryonic condition of the typical fishes. It is
this combination of embryonic characters with others which connect
them with the higher classes, this union of high and low characters,
which has given rise to all the disj)ute concerning the position of these
families in the scale of Fishes as well as to much of the difi'erence of
opinion concerning the law of succession of animals in Greology.
Again, the first introduced reptiles, viz: the reptiles found in the old
red sandstone and coal, are the most remarkable instances of con-
necting types of which we have any knowledge. In the first place
they seem to have been amphibious, (in the proper sense of the word,)
and thus to have connected land animals and water animals, air
breathing with water breathing, and all of them united characters,
which are now represented by widely separated families. To give a
single instance : the carboniferous reptile, recently described by Pro-
fessor Wyman and exhibited at the last meeting of the Scientific As-
sociation at Albany, so remarkably combined characters which are now
parcelled out between the three families of Batrachians, Saurians, and
Ophidians, that this distinguished comparative anatomist seemed
almost at a loss as to which of these iamilies to assign it. He decided,
however, that it most nearly resembled a Salamandroid Batrachian
with characters closely connecting it with the other families already
mentioned.

The LahyrintJiodon of the new red sandstone has been classed by
some anatomists with Boiracliians, and by others with crocodiles.
There seems yet a doubt whether it should be called a tailless croco-
dile or a crawling frog with crocodilian teeth. The huge Saurians of
the secondary period combined reptilian with fish, and even some
mammalian characters. Even in the tertiary period and in the intro-
duction of the highest animals this law is not forgotten. The recent
investigations of Professor Owen have shown that the first introduced
Pachyderms were not typical Pachyderms, but that they combined the
characters of Pachyderms and Ruminants to such a degree that it is
almost impossible to assign them with certainty to one or the other
order. In fact, the study of these extinct forms has led this great
anatomist to class the Pachyderms and Ruminants together as sub-
divisions of one and the same order.

Thus in every case in the earliest faunas and florae one class stood
for many. The earliest families combined the characters of several

ox COAL. 165

families or classes, and stood as their representative until these fami-
lies or classes were separately introduced. The Placoids and Ganoids,
for instance, stood during almost the whole palfeozoic period the sole
representatives of the vertebrate type, combining in themselves the
characters of all classes, and thus prophesying their coming, until
Nature was fully prepared for their introduction. The Sigillaria and
Lepidodendron stood as the representatives of both Cryptogam and
Phoenogam, until these two ideas were separately and more distinctly
expressed by the subsequent introduction of the typical forms of these
two classes. It is as if Nature first sketched out her work in general
terms and then elaborated each subordinate idea in separate families ;
all these families, taken together as an organic whole, still containing
the original idea in a more completely developed form, as if the pro-
blem of organic nature was first expressed in a few simple but com-
prehensive symbols and then differentiated. Organic nature has
often been compared to a broken chain, the disjointed links of which
are the widely separated and distinctly marked families of tlie present
fauna and flora, and the connecting links of which are to be found
deep buried in the strata of the earth. But the complexity, the
beauty, and, more than all, the life, growth, and development of Na-
ture, is not to be represented by any such miserable mechanical con-
trivance as a chain. It is rather a tree — a tree of life — a tree whose
trunk is deeply rooted in the lowest paleozoic strata_, whose first
giant arms are given ofi" in the carboniferous, which branch again in
the secondary and again in the tertiary periods, while its extreme
branchlets, and also its flower and fruit, are the fauna and flora of the
present epoch. The object of geology is to trace each branch to its
fellow branch, and each limb to its fellow limb, and thus gradually to
restore the whole noble form and determine the laws of its growth.

This differentiation, this passing from simplicity to complexity,
from unity through diversity to a higher unity, is the fundamental
law of development. Let me illustrate my meaning by a few simple
examples : Tbe ultimate anatomical elemeurs of every organized body,
whether animal or vegetable, are cells. The whole body is made up
of cells, and all the bodily functions are performed by cells. In fact,
the body may be looked upon as an organized community of indi-
vidual cells. Now, if we trace these cells from their earliest condition
in the embryo to their mature condition in the fully developed animal
or plant, or from the lowest animal or plant regularly to the top of
the scale, we will observe a most beautiful instance of the difteren-
tiation of which I speak. The cells are at first all alike, simple and
globular, and each performs all the functions appertaining to cells,
though comparatively imperfectly. But as development advances the
cells begin to take on different forms and to perform different func-
tions. Some become nervous cells, some muscular cells, some biliary
cells, &c., until, in the mature condition and in the highest animals,
the diversity of form and specialization of function reaches the highest
point, each form of cell being confined to the performance of a single
function.

If, instead of the ultimate anatomical elements, the cells, we take
the proximate anatomical elements, the organs, or even the regions of

166 LECTDEES.

the body, still the same differentiation of form and specialization of
iuction is observable as we pass from the embryonic to the mature
condition, or from the lowest to the highest animals. I might give
many other examples taken from the organic kingdom. I will give
bat one other example, and that taken from a still higher kingdom.
Human society is also an organized body, the ultimate anatomical
elements of which are individuals. Now, in the earliest conditions of
human society we find these elements, so far as their social functions
are concerned, identical. Each man performs all the social functions
apertaining to man. He is his own tailor, shoemaker, agriculturist,
scientific man, &c. But in proportion as society advances in the same
proportion does specialization of social functions advance, until, if we
could conceive of a society perfectly organized on a purely material
basis, i. e. according to the French material philosophy, then the
social function of each individual would be reduced to the narrowest
possible limits. This is only impossible or undesirable on account of
man's moral and spiritual nature. Still it is no less evident that, in
f-o far as human society is a material organization, specialization of
lunction, differentiation is the law of development.

Now, it will be recollected that in the geological history of animals
and plants we have everywhere found the same differentiation of form
and specialization of function. As in the history of the animal body,
one cell form in the embryo was the representative of many widely
separated cell forms in the mature animal ; so also in the geological
liistory of that greater and more complex organism, the animal and
vegetable kingdom, one form in the early periods stood as the repre-
sentative of many widely separated forms in its present mature con-
dition. Am I not justified, then, in saying that the great law which
has governed the introduction of successive animal and vegetable spe-
cies is that of gradual development of the animal and vegetable king-
dom as an organic luliolef

It seems to me that all the dispute and misunderstanding on this
subject have been the result of too narrow a view, have arisen from fixing
the mind upon genera and species instead of upon the larger divisions
of classes and orders, upon the individual elements instead of the
organic whole. Development does not necessarily involve the idea of
])rogression in all the individual elements. In the differentiation of
the cells of the living body, of the individuals of an advancing com-
munity, or of the forms of an advancing fauna, the whole organism
progresses, but as a necessary result of differentiation, while the high-
est individuals are successively higher and higher, the lowest, consid-
ered in themselves, and not as parts of an organized whole, may
hecome loiver. Certainly the difference between the high and the low
becomes constantly greater. It should not surj^rise us, then, that
f^ome of the lowest torms of animal life have been among the latest
introduced. It is precisely what, according to a true appreciation of
the law of development, we should be naturally led to expect.

Mr. Plugh Miller, the eminent Scotch geologist, in his admirable
work, " Footprints of the Creator," by taking too limited a view of
this subject_, has been led, if not into error, at least into a statement
of views which has misled many. In his zeal against the Lamarck-

ON COAL. 167

ian theorists, and more particularly against the author of the "Ves-
tiges of Creation," he has attempted to show that, in certain families,
at least, the law has heen that of degradation, instead of progression.
He has labored to prove that the earliest fishes have been the highest,
instead of the lowest fishes, and that the earliest reptiles have been
higher in the scale than the present reptiles. This idea has been
seized upon by some in this country, and it has been attempted, by
connecting it with the fall and degradation of man, to show that the
universallaw of history, both geological and human, is degradation.
The disciples of this melancholy philosophy believe that divine power
successively introduced higher and higher classes, but each class, left
to its own laws, continued to degrade itself. The Deity repeatedly
attempted progression, by the miraculous introduction of successively
higher classes, but some malign influence as constantly iaterposed
and, to some extent, frustrated these attempts.

Now, it is evident that these theorizers have never thoroughly
grasped the fundamental idea of development. They mistake speciali-
zation for degradation. Upon this theory all our boasted modern
civilization, so far as it is the result of division of labor, specialization
of social functions, and mutual dependence of parts, is degradation.

Upon what ground are the Ganoids and Flacoids considered the
highest fishes? Only on the ground that they combine with their
fish characters others which ally them with the higher classes, par-
ticularly with reptiles. In other words, they fall into the very error
of the Laraarckians themselves, viz : that of supposing that the ani-
mal kingdom is to be represented by a linear series, and that, there-
fore, the highest fishes approach the lowest reptiles, and the highest
reptiles the next higher class, &c. But the very reverse of this is the
fact. The animal kingdom should be represented by an infinitely
branching tree, rather than by an ascending right line ; tor we find,
in every case, classes approach each other in the lowest members of
each, and diverge as they ascend. Thus, it is the lowest, and not the
highest plants, which approach the animal kingdom. As we ascend,
they become more and more widely separated, until, in the highest
representatives of each, the separation reaches its highest point. So
also each branch of these kingdoms diverges from its fellow branches.
It is, therefore, in its lowest, not its highest, members that we should
naturally expect, according to the law of difierentiation, the class of
fishes to approach the class of reptiles. In some sense, indeed, Fla-
coids and Ganoids may be considered higher than typical fishes.
Their brain and nervous system is more highly organized, their re-
production is more complex, their young are better cared for. But
it will be recollected that they are both connecting and embryonic
types. Now, it is their connecting characters which seem to elevate
them, for their true fish characters are all embryonic. As vertebrates
they may possibly be considered higher than other fishes, but as
fishes they must be considered low. Anatomists may place them
high but morphologists will always place them low. If the several
classes of the animal kingdom, diverging in various directions, be,
as it were, projected u|)on a vertical plane, the Flacoids and Ganoids
may possibly occupy a higher position than the typical fishes ; but_,

168 LECTUEES.

in such a rectilinear projection, all the variety and beauty of nature
is lost. It is evident that, for purposes of classification, the mor-
phologist is right ; for if the principle of the anatomists is consistently
carried out, no classification is possible, for animals the most diverse,
an echinoderm and a fish, may be brought together. The Divine classi-
fier, in the introduction of species, has followed the principle of the
morphologist.

Geology, then, teaches, and, as it seems to me, unmistakably
teaches, that the law of succession of animals and plants is that of
progressive development in time of these two kingdoms. But,
although there has been a development, it is not the development of
the Lamarckian, of the author of the Vestiges of Creation, and the
pantheist. The development which geology teaches is not a develop-
ment which is the result of physical laws and physical forces. If
there is anything which geology teaches with clearness, it is that
the animal and vegetable kingdoms did not commence as monads, or
vital points, but as organisms so perfect that even the maddest La-
marckian must admit that they could not have been formed by agency
of physical forces ; that species did not pass into one another hy trans-
mutation, but that each species was introduced in full perfection, re-
mained unchanged during the term of their existence, and died in
full perfection ; that physical conditions cannot change one species
into another, but that a species will give up its life rather than its
specific character. In passing from the equator to the poles we pass
from one geographical fauna to another, from one set of species to
another, but observe no transmutation, but only substitutions ; so
also in passing from the oldest geological to the present fauna we
pass from one set of species to another ; not, however, by transmuta-
tion, but always by substitution. This has been repeated so many
thousand times in the geological history of the earth that there is
no room for doubt on the subject. As far as the evidence of geology
extends, each species ivas introduced hy the direct miraculous interfer-
ence of a personal intelligence. There has, indeed, been a constantly
increasing series, but the connexion between the terms of the series
has not been physical or genetic, but intellectual ; not founded in the
laws of reproduction, but in the eternal counsels of the Almighty.
There has, indeed, been a development, but not a development the
force of which exists within the thing developing ; but rather the de-
velopment of a great work of art, under the hand of the Divine
Artist — a work conceived in eternity, and elaborated throughout all
time. What an overwhelming idea this thought gives us of the un-
changeableness, the all-comprehensive intelligence and foreknowledge
of the Deity ! The infinite diversity of nature, the whole idea of this
infinite work of art, was contained in the first strokes of the Great
Artist's pencil, and the ceaseless activity of Deity has been exercised
only in the eternal unfolding of the original conception.

LECTURE ON THE VASTNESS OF THE VISIBLE CREATION.

BY PROFESSOR STEPHEN ALEXANDER OF THE COLLEGEj OF NEW JERSEY.

My object on this occasion is, in itself, a very simple one. I desire to
give some illustrations of the vastness of the visible creation, as made
known by modern astronomy. I say emphatically modern astroDomy,
for some knowledge of this science is probably nearly as old as
the world itself. Almost from the first issuing of the great decree
that the sun and moon should serve for signs, and for seasons, and for
days, and for years, men have been careful to observe the heavens ;
for the Great Creator had so written that decree upon the heavens
themselves that men have not been slow to read the lesson thus visi-
bly inculcated, I would observe, moreover, that the objects of astro-
nomical research, with very trifling exceptions, are, of all others, with
which we have to do, the most unalterable. It is almost exactly true
that the very constellations which we now see were gazed upon by the
antedeluvian patriarchs ; were in full view of Noah when the great
flood of waters was upon the earth ; met the upturned eye of Abraham
when he was led out by Divine command to behold in them the sym-
bol of the promise ; guided the ancient Greeks in navigation, and
still serve the modern astronomer as so many guide-points in the
heavens.

My purpose, as already indicated, is to illustrate, not to demonstrate.
To accomplish the latter in a single lecture would not be practicable ;
and certainly of astronomy, above all other sciences, it is true that it
may throw itself on its character for veracity when it requests that its
conclusions should be received as reliable. A science which can trace
a comet in its course, where no eye has had even a telescopic view of
it for three-quarters of a century, and bring it back by computation
correctly almost to a day, or which can predict an eclipse a century
hence as readily as one that will occur this year, and to whose accu-
racy experience throughout bears such abundant testimony — such a
science may fearlessly throw itself on its character for veracity. Be-
fore I proceed, however, to elucidate the subject, let me call attention
for a moment to an old-fashioned problem, whose bearings upon the
subject will, I trust, be presently seen. I allude to the problem of the
price of a horse, in which a farthing was allowed for the first nail in his
shoes, two for the second, four for the third, and so on. There were
thirty-two nails in all, and yet, from the small beginning of a farthing,
owing to this doubling thirty-one times, the value of the horse was only
to be computed in millions of pounds. Now, with reference to the
subject of astronomy, we shall have occasion to see that, though com-
mencing with a comparatively moderate unit, we shall advance upon
a similar plan, but much more rapidly. Keeping, then, in view the
illustration already given, you will at once see how gigantic, after a
very few steps, must be the last result compared with the first. Our
first object to-night will be to gain some idea of the size of the earth
itself, on which we stand. The half diameter of the earth is the

170 LECTURES.

measuring unit with wliicli to conapare the distance of the earth from
the sun, and thus obtain a new unit with which afterwards to compare
the distances of the other planets. To give a just idea of the size of
the earth we will avail ourselves of the largest tangible measure at-
tainable, that is, the highest mountain on the earth's surface. The
highest mountains are the Himalayas, their altitude being five and
a half miles. Now, we do not exaggerate when we say that, if we
could uncover the base of one of those mountains, it would cover four
times the original area of the District of Columtjia, or the surface of
one of the ordinary counties of our States, rising above that surface
to the height of five and a half miles, about equal to the height of
Chimborazo added to that of the highest of the Alps. This shall be
our standard of comparison with regard to the magnitude of the earth.
Such a mountain is rather more than Y^io" <^^ ^^^ earth's diameter or
about y\-o of its radius. In making the comparison, after the ordi-
nary mode, two difficulties present themselves. It is said that, if you
represent the earth by a globe, the highest mountain on its sur-
face may be represented by a small grain of sand. You thus proceed
from the greater to the less^ whereas, in nature, we must proceed from
the less to the greater. Besides, a grain of sand is too small to give
an adequate idea of the matter to be illustrated. To avoid this we
shall make use of a scale sufiiciently large to present the mountain
distinctly, and shall proceed in the natural order from the less to the
greater. This diagram before me is thirty-nine feet six inches in
length, and is intended to represent two radii of the earth opening to
the extent of one degree. At the further end of it is a blue band,
representing the atmosphere, and immediately beneath which is a
small row of mountains. Their heights, on this scale, is a trifle less
than two-thirds of an inch, and their actual height, as compared with
the real half diameter of the earth, is as two-thirds of an inch com-
pared with thirty-nine and a half feet, and doubling the half diameter
we shall have the ratio of two-thirds of an inch to seventy-nine feet.
Below the row of mountains you have a dark blue band, representing
the ocean. Below that again a darker portion still, representing that
portion of the earth's crust through which you must go to find a red
heat, and beyond that you have the red color continued until it passes
into whiteness ; it indicates the depth at which we would probably
arrive at a white heat.

[It would be impossible, in a wood-cut, to do justice to the illustra-
tion here explained by the lecturer. The explanation itself will
doubtless be sufficient.]

The diameter of the earth is, then, a very large unit in comparison
with the height of the highest mountain. The circumference, of
course, is more than three times the diameter. If you should attempt
to walk around the earth at the rate of twenty miles a day, three
years and five months would be spent in completing the circuit; and if
you should fly around it at the rate at which the steam car travels, say
thirty miles an hour, you would accomplish its circuit in thirty-four and
a half days ; but, if its circumference be great in comparison with ordi-
nary standards, its surface in comparison with that of a sphere of
ordinary size must be still more enormous. The illustrations, I would

THE VISIBLE CREATION. 171

remark, that I give you here, are most of them originally devised, and
the results in all cases verified hy actual computation. We could not
pass over the surface of the earth and take a good look at the surface
at a more rapid rate than that of twenty square miles a day, and yet
this would occupy us a period of 27,090 years. To view that portion
of the earth which is inhabited, if we should estimate it at but one-
fourth of the whole, would, at the same rate of progress, require 6,750
years ; or to view the habitable portion of the surface of the earth would
require, in the case of the same individual, provided he could live so
long, more than the time from the creation of man down to the present
day to walk. If the surface of the earth be so large, its capacity, of
course^ compared with an ordinary standard, will be found to be to it
in a still greater ratio. The largest tangible measure, as I have said,
is the largest mountain on the earth's surface. Suppose such a moun-
tain to be regularly shaped, and to have a diameter of twenty miles at
the base, it would then contain 576 cubic or solid miles of material.
Make use of that huge body as the unit of measurement of the bulk of
the earth, and the bulk of the earth would contain it 450,000,000 of
times, and even more. How can we appreciate so large a number?
We find it even difficult to form an idea how large a number a mil-
lion is ; we may obtain some idea of the vastness of numbers, such as
those in quf^stion, by ascertaining the time required to count them.
If, then, you should count at the rate of two per second, continuing the
work for eight hours a day, twenty-one years and five months would be
spent in counting the number which expresses the bulk of the earth
in comparison with that of the mountain. Perhaps I do not exag-
gerate the matter when I say, that the most accurate idea of a bulk so
vast may be obtained by regarding the image which we frame to our-
selves when we attempt to form an idea of infinite space. As we
cannot grasp infinity this image must have a dim and misty outline ;
but it may be that it approaches more nearly than anything else to
presenting an adequate idea of the actual size of the earth.

Having obtained some idea of the size of the earth let us proceed a step
further, not in the way of doubling, but much faster. In so doing we
next notice the distance of the earth from the moon, which is represented
here on a much smaller scale than that employed in our first figure.
The distance from the centre of the earth to the centre of the moon is
about sixty radii, or thirty diameters of the earth. The magnificent
appendage of Saturn compares very well in size with this, its diame-
ter being about twenty times that of the earth. We pass from this to
the diameter of the sun, which is about one hundred and twelve times
that of the earth, and, of course, the surface is more than ten thou-
sand times the surface of the earth. The scale we have at first adopted
we should find to be inadequate to compare the earth with the sun.
No ordinary apartment could contain the necessary illustration. The
scale has therefore been reduced a thousand times, instead of being
that of a hundred miles to a foot. This diagram is constituted on a
scale of 100,000 miles to a foot. On it the earth has shrunk down to
3^0*0 of an inch in diameter. This, then, [pointing to the figure,] is
the relative size of the sun, 112 diameters of the earth being equal to
tbe diameter of the sun. The liveliest imagination^ however exer-

172

LECTURES.

cised, can form no adequate idea of the size of this magnificent luminary
of the day. Its surface occupies an area greater than that of twice ten
thousand oceans, each larger than the Pacific. And this surface is
tossed into waves of intense brilliancy, beneath which the Himalayas
would be buried and "melt with fervent heat;" and whether we
regard him as issuing from the chambers of the east, he commences
like a giant to run his course ; or whether in unveiled meridian splen-
dor, he almost seems to pause a moment to gaze upon a world rejoicing
in his presence, or enwrapped in robes of surpassing magnificence he
sinks to rest at night ; under any and all these points of view, he is
at once the fitting representative and chosen emblem of all that is
good and beautiful.

From the size of the sun we proceed, in the next place, to that of
the diameter of the earth's orbit. But I would observe, in passing,
that the relative size of most of the planets is represented in this
diagram. Thus, we have that of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, &c. The moon is represented by a ball, the size of a pea, at

Upper line — 1. Mercury. 2. Venus. 3. Earth. 4. Mars. 5. Moon. 6. Jupiter.
Lower line — 7. Saturn and the three largest of his satellites. 8. Uranus, with the two
large satellites. 9. Neptune, with his satellites.

the place to which I now point, almost touching the sun. That rep-
resents the comparative size of the moon. The distance from the
centre to the surface of the sun is one and two-thirds the distance of
the moon from the earth, which itself is thirty diameters of the earth.

THE VISIBLE CREATION. 173

The distance of tlie earth from the sun is about 12,000 diameters
of the earth, or, if we proceed in the other way, multiplying the
last unit, we shall find it to be 107 diameters of the sun, vast as is
that body in extent. To travel this distance at the rate of thirty
miles an hour, going on continually, would occupy three hundred
and sixty two years and seven months ; and merely to count it at
at the rate already mentioned, that of two per second for eight
hours of every day, would fully occupy four and a half years ;
and yet more than three times this distance the earth travels every
year. To turn around but once in a year requires but a very slow
angular motion. Imagine the hand of a dial-plate to turn around
only once in a year, how large the dial-plate must be in order that we
might see the motion at all ; yet in completing its circuit the earth
travels at the rate of nineteen miles per second ; or, while I de-
liberately say to you, it moves, we are borne nineteen miles. This
result cannot be in error by more than its two hundred and thirty-
pecond part. When nearest to the sun, which is about the last of
December, we travel about three-tenths of a mile per second faster
than this, and about the first of July three-tenths of a mile slower.
Even this excess of velocity is fearful. Who could think of being
conveyed, mechanically, over the surface of the earth at the rate of
three-tenths of a mile per second.

We are now compelled again to reduce our scale, and, instead of one,
one hundred thousand miles to the foot, make use of one, two hundred
millions of miles to a foot; and thus the sun, though magnificent in
comparison with the earth, shrinks down and becomes no larger
than the head of a pin. The orbit of the earth is represented by a
white curve, to which the rod now points. Here we have the dis-
turbed regions of the smaller planets, and there we have portions of
that of Uranus and the most remote of the known planets, Neptune.
This long and complete curve is the orbit of Halley's comet. ^ The
distance of the earth from the sun being now taken as our unit, the
distance of Neptune will be thirty times that, or thirty times ninety-
five million miles. Of course, to travel it at thirty miles per day
continuously would occupy about ten thousand eight hundred and
seventy-five years. Five distances of the earth from the sun from
the place of Neptune would carry you to the end of the orbit of Hal-
ley's comet. The distance from this, again, to the nearest star is, we
had almost said, a void of immense extent compared, with that
which we have already had to do. It is scarcely worth while to re-
gard miles at all in speaking of the distance of a star ; the number
becomes so large that we cannot grasp it. We may, however^ obtain
a speaking illustration of the enormous distance of the nearest of the
fixed stars by ascertaining what must represent it in comparison with
the small globe which I hold in my hand, which has a diameter of
three inches. We must despair any more of illustrating distances so
vast by any picture, however large. We are not about to deal in mag-
nificent oriental fiction, but with ascertained facts. Let this globe rep-
resent the earth ; then one hundred and seventeen thousand five hun-
dred miles will represent the distance of the nearest fixed star.

It is useless, almost^ to state how long it would take to count

174 LECTURES.

this distance — one hundred and seventeen thousand years would
thus be occupied ; and, if you thought of travelling it at all, you
would find that it could not he accomplished in seventy-four mil-
lions of years. Having thus ascended where the nearest of the
fixed stars are, let us, in the next place, ascertain wha,t they are —
whether planets or suns, or what ? We all know with how much
facility we see a bright light, though it may be very small. A can-
dle or taper can be seen in foggy weather long before the building
containing it ; and even in the case of reflected light, the merest
spicula of glass, how brightly it shines, and how readily it can be dis-
tinguished from the dark substances surrounding it. The light of a
star must be very intense, for even when highly magnified by a
telescope, so that its light is enfeebled, it yet shines brightly, though
appearing nearly as a mere point ; and if the light of it is reflected
light why do we not see the body that illuminates the star ? What
is that body ? It cannot be the sun, because, even at the very moderate
distance of the planets, it becomes very feeble ; if, then, we could
suppose the light coming from the stars to be reflected lights we
would be at a loss to discover the luminous body that shines upon
them. But it has been ascertained, by careful experiment, that the
light of the very brightest fixed star, Sirius or the Dog star, which,
if the nigiit were clear, my audience might see as they passed out of
the lecture room — we say it has been ascertained that the actual light
emitted by this star, (with quite a probable allowance for distance,)
is full sixty-three times that of our sun ; such is not always the
case, as some stars do not give quite as much light as the sun. But
it is true, notwithstanding, that if many of the stars are not suns they
are more. It is unnecessary to contend about the name, for you must
either call them suns or invent a name which shall inean a larger
thing. When we make the statement that all the fixed stars are suns,
are we aware of the sublimity involved in that statement ? I under-
took to show my audience, as well as I could, a short time ago, what
constituted a single sun ; but it is also true that the tiny ray which
gladdens our eye, as shooting from some twinkling star, it trembles in
the casement ; it is true that this is a miniature sunbeam, and the
faint and feeble glow of starlight, which sometimes, like a semi-
transparent veil, covers the fair face of nature is woven of the
scattered glory of thousands of suns. In the very fact that it is thus
but faint and feeble we have the most speaking illustration of their
awful distance ; when we arrive at such a distance as this, it becomes
quite evident that such a unit as the earth's distance from the sun is
altogether too small. The distance of the earth from the sun must be
taken some 500,000 times or more, in order to make a comparison, and
we must therefore resort to something that will give us an adequate
measuring unit. This may be found in the velocity of progression of
the light which comes from the stars themselves. According to two
different and independent results this velocity is about 192,000 miles
per second ; the distance of the earth from the sun will thus be repre-
sented by 85 minutes. It takes a very trifle more than that for
light to pass from the sun to the earth. The Ifght comes from a
Centauri, the nearest of the fixed stars, in 3| years ; from 61 in the

THE VISIBLE CREATION. 175

Swan in 9^ years ; from Arcturus in 26 years ; from the Polar star in
48 years ; and from Capella in 70f years ; or Capella, the beautiful star
in the Goat, is seen by the light which left it nearly three-quarters of
a century ago, and has been travelling at the rate of one hundred
and ninety-two thousand miles per second during the whole of that
interval.

Let us next notice the combinations of the stars. It is a very
curious circumstance, to say the least, that wherever we direct the
telescope to the heavens we shall find the stars combined in pairs ;
and so frequently does this combination occur that we cannot regard
it as the result of accidental position. It is true that when two stars
are almost one behind the other they might not appear to be very far
apart, though really at very different distances from us ; but by careful
measurement, in some cases, it has been ascertained that they are
really, as well as apparently, near. In fact they are connected to-
gether, and revolve around each other, as is the case with the earth
and sun. We have here represented two or three such double stars.
Tnere is one in Gemini ; also one in Scorpio, one of the two stars
being blue and the other yellow. The blue star does not show well,
unless in a very good light ; but the representation is therefore the
more true to nature, the sky being itself so blue that it is more diffi-
cult to see such a star. Red and yellow stars are also of frequent
occurrence ; and in the case of the beautiful star in Andromeda, the
two individual stars are, the one rose color, and the other green ; the
colors of the double stars are complementary, or such as, when com-
bined together, form a white light, the star appearing white and
single to the bare eye. We can perceive something extremely elegant
in the arrangement if planets should circulate around these red or
green suns ; then a red or a green light would be seen as long as it
alone were visible ; but a white light, when both suns were above the
horizon, poetic fancy never sketched anything more sublimely elegant
than this combination of tinted suns, these parti-colored gems which
sparkle in the diadem which surrounds the dark brow of night.

We come now to a more extensive combination of stars. We cannot
look at the sky with any sort of attention even once without perceiving
an amazing collection of the stars in the direction of one singla great
band or girdle. This constitutes what is called the milky way.
Throughout one half of its circuit it is divided into at least two parts.
Most of the stars in heaven are situated in one part, and in the other
portions of the sky the stars are comparatively sparse. The attempt
was made by Sir William Herschel to ascertain the relative distance
of the fixed stars before the actual distance of any of them was deter-
mined. Some idea may be formed of this by ascertaining how many
more can be seen in one direction rather than another, as we might
judge of the extent of a crowded audience in one direction rather than
in another, by ascertaining how many could be seen in the one and in
the other direction. A better method of sounding the heavens, as it was
called, consisted in using successively telescopes of greater and greater
space-penetrating power. The space-penetrating power may be ascer-
tained by comparing the brightness of the beam of light emitted by a
telescope with that seen by the bare eye. The science of optics will
readily enable us to ascertain that. Then, if we bear in mind that light

176 LECTURES.

at twice tlie distance is four times as feeble, &c., it will be seen tliat a
telescope which would increase the intensity of light to four times that of
the light seen by the bare eye might enable us to see twice as far, &c.

By making use of a telescope of a greater and greater space-pene-
trating power Sir William Herschel, in investigating portions of the
milky way, continued to see new stars up to the twenty-eighth
order of distance. The borders of the milky way are supposed to
be at the nine hundredth order of distance. If this be so the
time of the arrival of light from the borders of the milky way must
not be measured by a single year, but by centuries ; in fact, so far as
we may rely on the conclusions of Dr. Madler, the distance of the
centre of this our group from us, as thus estimated, is 537 years. He
concludes, moreover, that the stars in the milky way and our sun
with them revolve at the rate of once in about eighteen million years.
"Whether we regard this as accurately ascertained or not, very certain
it is that the sun and ell planets are moving in the regions of space.

The researches of Herschel, Argelander, Struve, and others, have
all contributed to point out very accurately a single spot in the heav-
ens, towaids which we are incessantly travelling by a motion very
slow when we consider the magnitude of the orbit, the distance trav-
elled being about four-fifths of the diameter of the earth's orbit every
year. When we scrutinize the outskirts of the milky way and at-
tempt to see beyond it, we find what seems to be an entirely detached
combination of stars. If what we see in them be stars only about the
size of those in the milky way we might readily conclude that they
were at no greater distance ; but it may be that what are apparently
single stars are themselves combinations. These groups are called
clusters. This is the representation of a coarse cluster. We find others
much more closely arranged, as in the figure, where they are repre-
sented by a white, powdery substance. The stars near the centre are
not to be counted by hundreds. When clusters become so remote that
you cannot make out the individual stars you may still discern clus-
ters of a granular shape and appearance in their structure ; or that
they are made up of a "star dust," an expression sublime from
its very simplicity. In this quasi crystalline mass the molecules are
double stars, the ultimate particles are suns, and the atoms, if any,
are planets. If the cluster be a globular one it may also be true that
all the stars, the outer ones only excepted, are revolving around the
centre in the self-same time. Beyond these still are the nebulaB, some
of which the most powerful telescopes have failed to resolve; that is,
have i'ailed to show that they are made up of stars. In other cases
they are found to be made up of stars, and resolvable. We cannot
positively assert that there is no cloudy-looking substance existing
in the heavens which is not made up in this way ; some appear-
ances, surrounding stars, cannot as yet be resolved. Other whole
nebula3 cannot yet be resolved by telescopes of large space-penetrating
power. Some idea of the distance of a nebula not resolvable may be
obtained by ascertaining the space-penetrating power which will cause
that nebula to present the appearance put on by another before power
suflScient was applied to resolve it; and thus, comparing the powers
employed in the two cases, we arrive at a distance so great as that a
comparison by means of the velocity of light itself becomes almost

THE VISIBLE CEEA.TION. 177

inadequate. Even liglit, (which could we thus curb its motion would
girdle the earth in a twinkling,) which rebounds to us from the moon
in a second and a quarter, and which, springing from its home in the
sun, visits the most distant of the known planets and returns in
less than a day, even this swiftly flying messenger, borne upon the
very wings of the morning, can only reach us from those remote
bounds after the lapse of centuries. Admitting all this to be true,
then, although an accurate result is here no longer possible, there is
a reasonable probability that the sublime idea presented by Huygens
is itself a fact; that some of these bodies are so remote that the light
by which we see them must have left them before the creation of man.
There is something almost awful in the thought of our having arrived
at a reasonable probability that we see these objects as they were be-
fore the race of man had being ; to behold, as it were, the record of
eternity past, unrolled to be read in time. We are compelled to view
them from such a distance looking towards them; but in imagination
we may place ourselves at the other extremity of the line thus defined,
then the light from the earth and solar system would have been as
long in reaching that position as the light from the other way has been
in reaching us ; and if we had the optical power and could look down
upon the earthy then the mastodon, which is now a mere fossil in our
cabinets, would be seen as the living, moving^ breathing mastodon.
The I'act, in more general terms, is this: There are portions of the uni-
verse through which the visible record of very much that is great
and awful that has been transacted here is still travelling through the
regions of space^ and might be discerned by a being provided with
sufficient optical power. I think it necessary to notice but one thing
more. The fixed stars are not merely like the sun in the intensity of
their light, but, it would also seem, in revolving around their axes.
We ascertain that the sun revolves around its axis by noticing the
spots on its surface. When there are many spots towards us the light
of the sun must be enfeebled, sometimes even sensibly so. There are
variable stars that periodically become dim and then again resume
their former brightness. The natural solution of this fact is that these
stars are like the sun, not merely in their light, but also in the way in
which that light is produced. Perhaps upon their surface there are
spots which, when turned towards us, cause their light to become dim,
and when away from us there is an increase of brightness. There are
stars also which may be called temporary stars ; for after appearing
in the heavens a brief period they become seemingly very small or they
disappear altogether, a fact which can hardly well be accounted for,
except by the supposition that there has been a real physical change
in the body itself. In undergoing these changes, changes in color have
also been manifest, so great that we may suppose that there has been
a combustion or partial destruction of the body in question. The star
seen by Anshelm in 1670 was of the third magnitude, passed through
great fluctuations of light for two years, and then became either ex-
cessively small or quite invisible. There are, moreover, lost stars,
whose places are now vacant, though some cf them have been recently
observed. When we look at these strange fluctuations we may sup-
pose that something like combustion has taken place^ or that, for the

12 s

178 LECTURES.

time being, its power of giving light has been suspended. In reviewing
these facts it appears difficult not to conclude that here was a world
whose destiny was, for the time being, completed, and the fitful glare
of whose gorgeous funeral pile shooting across almost the vast distance
which separates us came with undiminished velocity to tell us the tale
that once it was. However this may be, we certainly know that He
who, ''by His strength, setteth fast the mountains, being girded
with power," hath also *' of old laid the foundation of the earth, and
the heavens are the work of his hands. They shall perish but He shall
endure ; yea, all of them shall wax old, like a garment, and as a ves-
ture shall He change them, and they shall be changed ; but He is the
same and his years shall have no end;" for " He inhabiteth eternity
and the praises thereof."

METEOROLOGY.

COMMUNICATION FROM A. FENDLER.

COLONIA TOVAR, VENEZUELA, SoUTH AMERICA,

August 5, 1856.

Dear Sir : I sailed from Philadelphia on the 5th of May, and
arrived at Laguayra three weeks after. Colonia Tovar I reached on
the 7th of June, and commenced my meteorological observations on
the 10th. The barometer and the dry and wet bulb thermometers,
which by your kindness I received from Mr. Green, I have brought
home safe and in good order.

Accompanying this I send you two registers of meteorological ob-
servations of the month of June and July, 1856 ; and here I have to
make the following remarks :

1. As I am very much interested in the results of the observations,
I need not say that I pay the most particular care and attention to
the condition of the instruments, as well as to the nicety in taking
observations and in noting them down.

2. The column under the head of " Barometer height reduced to
freezing point/' I could not fill up for want of the necessary tables.

3. By comparing my old thermometer, which is one of the more
common kinds, marked " T. Barry, London," with the Smithsonian
dry bulb thermometer, I found that the former is from one and a half
to five degrees too high ; so that I was obliged to use the dry bulb of
the psychrometer also as thermometer in the open air. The wet bulb
was therefore exposed to the open air also. According to the first
principles of evaporation it is, however, evident that the more rapid
the motion of air is which touches the wet bulb the more energetic
will be the evaporation of the water contained in the wet linen, and
the lower will the mercury sink. This I found to be confirmed by
every breeze, and even the ligtitest breath of wind that happened to
strike the wet bulb at the time I took observations. I therefore regard
all observations with the psychrometer, that are not taken in a calm
atmosphere, or in an atmosphere the velocity of which at the time of
observation is known, as of little value.

As I had no other standard thermometer besides the dry and wet
bulb, I can give the psychrometrical observations only, with the re-
mark that they are worth just as much as all other such observations
made in the open air without regard to the currents of the atmo-
sphere. In future I shall try to shelter the wet bulb against the
influence of wind at the time of observation,

4. As I have no rain gage I can only put down the time of be-
ginning and ending of rain.

5. With regard to clouds I may say, that the higher clovids are
mostly hidden from view by the masses of lower clouds, so that the
course of the former can very seldom be ascertained in the rainy
season, and, when seen, there are several strata, one above the other.
Instead of the higher clouds, I have carefully noticed and put down

180 METEOROLOGY.

the course of the loiver clouds, under the head of "winds." The
motion of these lower clouds may justly be said to indicate the real
course of the wind ; for in such a mountainous country as this the
atmosphere at the bottom of the kettle-shaped valley of the colony,
is set in motion by a great number of local causes, and this motion
is changed and modified by the many ravines and watercourses, and
by every slope of the irregularly shaped mountains. The colony is
surrounded by mountain ridges, crowned by several peaks. These
barriers open only in one direction, towards the east, where they form
an outlet for the river Tuy, which has its sources in the neighboring
fields and adjacent forests. In such a region as this it is next to im-
possible to note, even in one narrow district, all the diiferent little
breaths and jerks of wind, which frequently change every moment.

As to the motion ot the lower clouds, they frequently showed a
velocity which I estimated at about 7 miles per hour ; and as there is
no number corresponding to this velocity in the tables, I introduced
the number " 2^," which means 7 miles per hour.

Fog is a considerable item in this region in the rainy season, and I
have accordingly noted it down under the head of " kinds of clouds."
Thunder and lightning are very rare here, and when they occur
they make so little show that, with regard to force, they may be com-
pared to those of the United States as the zephyr to a strong gale.
In the register I have noted them down in the margin.

Tornadoes I have never seen in thecolony_, not even a gale of wind,
within the two and a half years that I have been living here. Hail
storms are unknown in this part of the country.

Of the 48 observations recorded in July, at 7 a. m. and 2 p. m., on
the course of the lower clouds, 10 are E., 15 E.SE., and 15 8E., which
shows the prevailing winds to be between E. and SE. Their mean
velocity is a fraction over four miles per hour.

Of rain, fog, mist, and clouds, we had more than a sufficiency, the
mean cloudiness being 6.4.

The weather has been so unfavorable since my return from the
States that I have not yet measured any of the neighboring heights
and passes by barometer.

The thermometer in the open air shows a mean temperature of 58.3
for the month of July, a rather low temperature for the height of
6,500 feet in latitude 10° 26'. The minimum of the month was 54°,
the maximum 69°.

I also inclose the half-hourly and hourly barometrical observations
for seven days, made in order to ascertain the hour of maximum and
minimum of the daily periodical variations. And here I found that
these variations within the tropics, at least at the colony, are not so
regular as we sometimes find stated in books. As, for instance, the
following: "Such is the regularity with which these motions are
efiected within the equatorial zones that they might there serve to
give the true time of the day." — (Nicollet, Essay on Meteor. Observ.,
page 7.) Eor we find maximums at 9^ a. m., 10, 11, 12 m., and
minimums at 4 p. m., 4^, 5, 5^, 6^ 6|, 7, and all this within the short
period of seven days. This irregularity is the more remarkable, as the
colony is a place where none of the extremes of heat and cold, or of

METEOROLOGY. 181

gales, hurricanes, and thunder storms are felt, that could disturb the
equilibrium of the atmosphere.

Besides the two registers and the hourly observations, I have copied
for you and inclosed the thermometrical observations for 12 months in
1854 and 1855. These have been taken with my old thermometer,
which proves to be from 1^ to 5 degrees too high, as compared with
the Smithsonian thermometer. Although this would make the mean
temperature of the year about 3 degrees too high, we are still enabled
to make some comparisons between the different months, which show
that from August the mean monthly temperature is gradually sinking
till January, which is the coldest month. After January it rises
again till May, and then sinks till July. This seems to inlicate that
the rising and falling of the mean temperature keeps equal pace with
the declination of the sun. If we now compare the means of the dif-
ferent hours of the day of each month, we find that the highest tem-
perature of the day is not at 2 or 8 p. m., as in the United States, but
at 12 o'clock at noon, and that the temperature at 3 p. m. is but a
fraction greater than that at 9 a. m. In five months of the year it is
nearly or quite the same with that at 9 a. m., viz: from November
till March, inclusive; during the other part of the year, from May
till September, inclusive, the mean temperature is higher at 3 p. m.
than at 9 a. m., with the exception of October and April, where the
temperature at 3 is even lower than that at 9 ; and these are the two
months which follow immediately after the equinoxes. Another curi-
ous fact is the sudden rise of mean temperature from July to August.
In Santa Fe de Bogota, in 4° 35' north latitude, July is said to be
even the coldest month of the year.

Some other facts could, no doubt, be drawn from this register by com-
parison, if its observations were founded upon a standard thermometer.

On the last page of this register of Colonia Tovar you will find
some observations, taken with the same thermometer, of "'Barry,"
during my stay at Chagres, on the Isthmus of Panama.

During my absence from the colony last winter some persons here,
who can be relied upon, have seen white frost one morning. This is
of extremely rare occurrence, but anyhow very remarkable for the
latitude of 10° 26', even at the height of 6,500 feet.

The characteristics of this region are its clouded sky, its equable tem-
perature, and its great amount of moisture. It is the '^' happy
region of the ferns," where these interesting plants find their most
suitable climate and grow in the greatest profusion. Here it is where
the stately tree-fern sometimes is seen to reach a height of 40 feet.

The produce most profitable to raise in the colony are potatoes, rye,
and oats. The apple tree grows side by side with the banana. The
strawberry is found in the greatest abundance, spontaneously grow-
ing about the fields. Indian corn does not come to maturity here,
while I have seen it raised and matured in Santa Fe, New Mexico,
which is at least 700 feet higher than the colony, and besides this is
near 36° north latitude. But in New Mexico they have a cloudless sky
nearly the whole year round and an extremely dry atmosphere, while
the colonists of Tovar are not much molested from the beginning of
May to the beginning of January by the rays of the sun.

182 METEOROLOGY.

The valley in which Colonia Tovar is situated was, so late as De-
cember, 1S41, a perfect wilderness, covered with primitive forest.
Not even the existence of this valley was known fifteen years ago,
neither to the government nor to its owner, although it is only thirty-
five miles west of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, and in a straight
line cannot be more than twelve miles from the sea. And when an
attempt was made to explore this region not even a guide could he
found for the small exploring party of fifteen men, headed by Colonel
Codazzi, a skillful officer and compiler of the new map of Venezuela.
When this party at last succeeded in crossing this region and reaching
the sea-shore, they thought they had achieved a most extraordinary
thing, (to cross a distance of twelve miles in six days;) and after they
had returned to their homes none of them had a desire to do the feat
over again. This was a party of natives. And when, at a later
period, after the establishment of the colony, another skillful engi-
neer found, with a party of colonists, his way to the opposite port of
the sea-shore, the party did not venture to go back the same route, but
rather chose the way by sea to Laguayra, from there to Caracas and
back to the colony, a very circuitous route certainly. Such is the
nature of this mountain region, with its precipices, waterfalls, deep
ravines, and its dense, almost impenetrable primeval forests.

In collecting botanical specimens, I have penetrated, without a com-
panion, the wilderness around in different directions, also that on the
other side of the principal mountain range towards the sea, and can
testify to the difficulties and hardships which are met with in. exploring
such a country. On excursions of this kind the most needful thing
besides a comjiass is a short sabre, called "machetta," which I have
to use continually in cutting through the lianos, the erect and climbing
canes, the under shrub, which is all matted and intermingled in a
thousand different ways into a dense mass of vegetation.

In these woods, where the rays of the sun never touch the ground,
there it is Avhere moisture and a cool temperature reign forever. The
trunk of every tree and its branches are covered with Ferns, Lyco-
podiaceee, Kosses, Hepaticfe, Lichens, Orchids, Bromeliads, Aracece
and besides Piperacce with many exogenous plants too numerous to
mention..

The soil in these forests is one entire mass of slender rootlets most
completely intei mingled and interwoven, more than a foot in thickness,
the interstices filled with a brown but imperfectly decomposed vege-
table mould, which is kept in its place by the network of the rootlets.
This stratum is covered with mosses and remnants of leaves, so that
on the mountain ridges not only the ground, but also the trunks and
branches of the trees, act like a thick layer of sponges in retaining the
water that either pours down in form of rain or settles more slowly
in the form of mist and clouds. This water is allowed to trickle and
sink down but very gradually, and is, therefore, a never-failing source
from which are constantly fed the many little rivulets that hurry down
the steep declivities into their common receptacle^ the narrow chasm
of the river Tuy, which, in one continued row of cascades, rushes
thundering down SE. and S. until after a run of twenty miles, turn-
ing suddenly to the east^ it finds a more level country.

METEOROLOGY. 183

In the depth of such a mass of vegetation, when man is by himself,
a feeling of loneliness takes the ascendency over every other emotion ;
no animal is seen, and but seldom the voice of a bird heard. While
on the sea-side of the mountains I was only made twice aware of the
vicinity of a bird in two days. In the neighborhood of farms and
habitations of men a greater variety of birds are seen and heard, and
sometimes the grunting or howling of monkeys and the deafening
cry of parrots.

The dry season commences here generally soon after New Year's
day and lasts till the end of April. The remainder of the year is
taken up by the rainy season. This is generally so, for there are many
exceptions, and our notions about the great regularity and sharply
defined seasons of the tropics, which we have received from books, are
sometimes materially upset and corrected by experience. When I first
came to the colony, in March, 1854, we had a dr}- season in its usual
way. The rainy season then commenced on the 23d of April, but it
did not end with the latter part of December, as is usually the case;
it lasted till the end of January, and commenced again with the first
of March, and then kept uniformly on till the end of December, 1855.
The dry season was, therefore, only of one month's duration instead of
four. The last dry season has been, on the contrary, unusually long,
and lasted till the latter part of May.

I have often thought that the climate of North America may stand
in some kind of relation to the climate of this country. It was on
the 24th of December, 1853, when I left New York, to sail for La-
guayra. We were hardly out of sight of land when a i'urious NW.
gale, a real hurricane, (which is still in fresh remembrance with some
of the captains I have lately seen,) during a period of three days threat-
ened our destruction. Atter my arrival in Venezuela I was told that
about Christmas, 1853, one of the most fearful gales from the north was
telt at Laguayra.* Another question is, whether the late remarkably
dry and cold winter of the United States and the unusually long dry
season of Venezuela, as also the remarkable appearance of white frost
in the colony, are not connected in some way or other.

As to the trade winds, I found on my trip from Philadelphia to
Laguayra that within the tropics we had no E.NE. wind, which is
thought to be the regular trade winds of those regions. After cross-
ing latitude 23^°, in longitude 684°, we were becalmed for one day, and
soon after got a fresh breeze from the south, which we kept all the
way to longitude 63^. By tacking we got to latitude 22°, longitude
63^°. From thence we had the wind all the time from S.SE , which
we kept to latitude 11|° the day before we reached Laguayra. Capt.
Wilkins, who has been in this southern trade for eighteen years,
assured me that within the last eight years he never could depend
much upon the trade winds. He finds that between latitude 23° and
18° the south wind frequently keeps on blowing very brisk for eight
days in succession.

On the way from the colony to' Caracas, along the high ridge of
the principal mountain chain, which stretches E. and W., parallel

■^ See page 188.

184 METEOROLOGY.

with the coast, at an elevation of from 7,000 to 8,000 feet, we travel
about six miles over a region hare of forest, where we nearly at all
times find a very strong breeze from the south, rushing up the declivity
and over the ridge, hurries off to the north towards the ocean. The
ocean can be plainly seen from this elevation. That this great current
of air does not sink down along the northern slope, but, on the con-
trary, is somewhat projected upwards by tlie shape of the mountain,
can be seen by the course of the condensed vapors which, in the form
of fog and mist, are driven along. May not this current of air sink
gradually lower and lower until it reaches about latitude 18°, where
jt strikes the sea? I have found this south wind at sea always much
colder than any of the other winds in these latitudes.

I wish I was in possession of some good work on the winds and the
currents of the ocean.

Vegetation at the colony is uninterrupted throughout the whole
year, except in a small class of plants which cannot thrive without a
great deal of moisture. Even in the dry season, when the lower re-
gions are parched up with heat, if there is any moisture at all in
the atmosphere capable of being condensed, the mountainous districts,
especially those covered with forests, are sure to get some of it. Trees
here are evergreens; they keep their branches and twigs clothed with
leaves until death. Day after day, and month after month, the sur-
rounding forest presents the same unchanged view in its deep green
garment. Single leaves fall here and there one by one ; and new
leaves appear as slowly and gradually as the old ones die away — un-
noticed and unobserved. The pleasing and hope-inspiring spectacle
of returning spring, in the sudden appearance of the new and tender
foliage, as seen in the temperate regions, is here unknown.

CoLONiA TovAK, January 8, 1857.

Dear Sir : Under date of August 5 I sent you a letter and some
registers of meteorological observations up to the 31st of July, which,
I hope, you will have received long before this.

Inclosed in a separate envelope I send you now four meteorological
registers for the months of August, September, October and Novem-
ber, I would have sent one for December also, but I have no more
blanks.

Besides these registers, I have inclosed diagrams* on four separate
sheets, one table of half-hourly barometrical observations, and one
about the course of the clouds.

The barometrical observations in the registers have their full value
only up to October 30, at 2 p. m ; for when I looked at the height
of the mercury one hour afterwards I found it more than one inch
below its usual level. This was so extraordinary that I expected
something wrong with the instrument. As soon as I touched it the
whole column of mercury sank rapidly down. In unscrewing the
brass cup which contains the little leather bag I found the former
half filled with mercury. On the surface of the bag, a little below

* The diagrams and curves could not be given in this report.

METEOROLOGY. 185

where it is tied and where it was in contact with the surrounding
brass tube, I found a spot of one-eighth of an inch diameter, as if cor-
roded by some kind of acid In the centre of this spot was a hole one-
sixteenth inch diameter. The corroded rim around the hole was very
smooth and viscid, similar to partly dissolved india rubber. After
sewing up the whole and giving it a coat of glue, to prevent the mer-
cury from leaking out, 1 filled the glass tube again as cautiously as pos-
sible, to prevent the formation of air bubbles. In this I succeeded pretty
well, and, with the exception of one minute portion of air, which
escaped into the vacuum, the latter seemed to be complete. The
mercury then showed but a small difference (yo g ^^ yJo parts of an
inch lower) compared with its former state. Hoping to succeed still
better the second time, I tried my hand once more at it, but did not
succeed so well this time, as some moisture had settled in the glass
tube. The mercury is now at least one-tenth of an inch lower than it
ought to be.

The barometrical observations made with this instrument since the
1st November, 1856, can, of course, not be considered as normal, and
can be used only with a view to institute comparisons among them-
selves.

I feel this defect the more acutely as I hoped to measure a number
of mountains and other localities, and to complete a twelve months'
register, to find out the mean height of the barometrical column for
the different months of the year. Up to the 1st November I found
the mean height greatest in July. Hitherto I have measured only
the pass over the mountains on the road from the colony to Victoria.
On this spot the barometer was 23.334 at 7A. 30m. a. m., September 9,
with the thermometer at 61°.

In the diagrams on sheet No. 1,1 have laid down, in a graphical
manner, the hourly and half-hourly rise and fall of the barometer from
6 a. m. till 9 p. m. for 12 days. We can see here, at once, the greater
amplitude of the daily periodical variations in October compared with
that of June ; also that the hours of maximum of the different days
in October are not far apart from each other and near to 10^ a. m.,
and the hours of minimum not far from 4 p. m.; while, on the con-
trary, in June, the hours of maximum, as well as those of minimum,
are much more scattered, and therefore not so regular.

On sheet No. 2 are the half-hourly observations laid down for 24
hours, from 4 a. m., October 7, till 4 a. m. next day. Here we
observe that, in the morning, the maximum, as well as the minimum,
is somewhat higlier than the maximum and the minimum in the
evening. This seems to be a general rule with all the daily periodi-
cal variations.

On sheet No. 3 the daily mean barometer heights from June 10 to
October 30 are put down and connected by straight lines to denote the
course of the barometer from day to day throughout the several
months. A kind of periodical rising and sinking is observable here,
alternately taking place in periods of 4 or 5 days, at least for June,
July, August and September.

Oq sheet No. 4 is to be found a comparison of the mean monthly
barometer heights of Colonia Tovar with those of St. Louis, Mo.,

186 METEOROLOGY.

made by Dr. G. Englemann in 1851, which shows the remarkahly
small monthly variation in the colony against the extreme range of
atmospheric pressure at St. Louis.

In all these illustrations the barometer height has not been reduced
to the freezing jJoint for want of the necessary tables ; but, as the
difference of temperature connected with these observations does not
range much over 8 degrees F., the results may be considered not far
from their true value.

Table No. 5 shows that the most prevailing currents of air at an
elevation of about 7,000 or 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, in the
months of June, July, August, September and October, are here from
E., E.SE., SE., S.SE.,and S., but especially from SE.

Table No. 6 contains half-hourly barometrical observations for 17
days, taken down at three different periods of the year. From this
and* from sheet No 1 we see that the amplitude of the daily periodical
variations is not a constant quantity in one and the same place, but
changes with the different periods of the year ; as also does the hour of
maximums and minimums. To find out, by continued observation,
the mean amount of amplitude and the precise time of the maximums
and minimums ibr each month of the year seemed to me desiderata of
much interest to meteorology.

With a view to investigate this matter I have made observations
accordingly. The first set I made Irom 18th to 24th June; the
second, from 1st to 7th October ; the third, from 10th to 12th Novem-
ber, and the fourth, from 22d to 28th December. These observations
give the mean amplitude for the latter part of June 058 ; for the
first part of October, 0.079 ; for November, 0.060, and for the end of
December, 0.043.

By a peculiar view of the cause of periodical variations, and by the
aid of an artificial globe, I had calculated as early as last September
that the amplitude at Colonia Tovar ought to be greatest about the
16th May and 26fch September, and least on the 21st January. The
above-mentioned numbers of amplitude for October, November, and
December coincide with my calculations so far, and it remains to be
seen how they will do for the remaining portion of the year.

With regard to temperature I will only say that the mean of the
three months of June, July, and August, (that is, of the meteorological
summer,) is 58 9 ; the mean of September, October, and November
(the meteorological autumn) is 58.9, or exactly the same. The mean
temperature of December is 56.6. During 204 days (from June 10
to December 31) the sky was only once free of clouds at 2 p m., 18
times free at 7 a. m., and 41 times at 9 p. m. Of these 204 days 143
were rainy days.

On the 5th of January I made a botanical excursion to one of the
highest mountains of this region, about twelve miles to the east of
the colony. The mountain, according to my estimation, may be about
7j800 feet above the level of the sea, and is a kind of central point or
knot, from which several rivers, flowing in different directions, take
their origin. This mountain is covered by a dense forest, with the
exception of a level spot of about half a mile in length and a quarter

METEOROLOGY. 187

of a mile in width, -which forms a Idncl of shallow hasin, only spar-
ingly covered by a thin coat of short grass and oUier small plants.
These ])lants I found the next morning at six o'clock white and
stiffened with heavy hoar frost, which augmented and lasted till the
rays of the sun fell upon it. The stiffened leaves of the herbs broke
under the least pressure, like thin layers of ice. The thermometer
was 37° at 67i. 30m. From all the information I could gather, hoar
frost seems to be common in this spot throughout the months of Janu-
ary and February. The wind blew during the night from northeast,
and was very })iercing.

Notwithstanding this low temperature, the forests of the neighbor-
ing heights surrounding this basin are clothed in perpetual green,
and the stately wax palm, with its straight and polished trunk of
70 or 80 leet, (by actual measurement,) rears, uninjured, its slender
form and its leaf adorned head high above all other trees.

In this excursion I had also an opportunity to form some idea of the
vast extent of destruction which was carried into the mountain forest
last February by a lucifer match and a thoughtless boy. Over whole
tracts of this primeval forest the trees lie dead one over the other, as
if uprooted by a whirlwind, scarcely showing any marks of fire on
their trunks. I was struck more than ever with the easy manner in
which fire can destroy these dense and humid forests, which, by cheir
shade, preserve a cool and moist atmosphere, and thereby cause the
vapors ox the adjacent strata of air to condense into clouds, that rest
upon them, with little intermission, during nine months in the year.
In these high regions the temperature is so low and equable that the
vegetable matter which is gathered on the ground between the trees
is decomposed very incom])letely and very slowly. It forms a stratum
of loose half-decomposed matter, in some places two to three feet thick,
which, in the rainy season, like an immense layer of sponge filled,
with water, feeds and supplies the rivulets and rivers gradually. In
the midst of the dry season this layer becomes sometimes dry enough
to burn, when kindled, with but little flame, and more like tinder,
spreading in all directions.

In this way the fire extends until met by a river or a road, or some
other obstacle. The sub-soil which underlies the spongy stratum on
these mountains is also very shallow and resting on hard rocks. The
roots of the trees therefore, do not go down very deep, but extend
more in a horizontal direction. When the spongy layer, with the
smaller roots, are burnt, the trees lose their hold entirely and I'all, one
over the other, in all directions. They die less from being burnt than
from being uprooted. Many different kinds of tall reeds soon take
the place of the trees. In a few years these reeds exclude everything
else. The fertile mould that may perhaps have escaped destruction
by fire is by and by carried down the declivities by the frequent rains.
The region, no longer sh-^ded by high trees, becomes diy. Subse-
quent conflagrations of adjacent savannahs, which are intentionally
set on fire to procure a new growth of young grass, take hold of the
reeds of the ruined forest, until, by the repeated attacks of these fires,
the roots of the reeds can stand it no longer, and the smaller grasses,
interspersed with a lew other plants, take their places.

188

METEOEOLOGY.

On the road from tlie colony to Caracas we pass through a region
in which this procestj is going on ; the reeds giving gradually way to
the smaller grasses. Here the great number of half burnt yet stand-
ing trunks of the wax palm tell plainl}'^ enough that there existed not
long ago a dense and humid forest, in which they luxuriated in all
their beauty, for these palms are never found, in their natural state,
growing in any other but humid forests. Here they stand isolated
in the midst of reeds. Most of them have died already, but many
linger yet in a dying condition, until their last green leaf has turned
brown, and then they stand like tall and slender pillars, the mournful
remnants of a once stately forest.

This is the same extensive region of which I spoke in my first letter,
where a strong southern breeze-, sometimes amounting to a gale,
sweeps constantly over the mountain ridge towards the sea. I have
traversed this region since at four different times, in the months of
August and September, and found every tiaie the same southern wind
blowing there, only somewhat more violent.

Before closing this letter I wish to add to the statement made in
my first letter* about the gale of December 24, 1853, that my inform-
ant here, in saying that the gale was felt at Laguayra^ forgot to men-
tion that it was felt only in the unprecedented agitation of the ocean,
but not in the atmosphere. This agitation of the sea is observed every
time a violent gale from the north has been blowing in the higher
latitudes, not the least breeze from the north being felt at the same
time at Laguayra, although it is an open roadstead, not in the least
sheltered against the north winds. This agitation of the sea, when
the air was perfectly calm, I have seen myself several times at La-
guayra; but at the time above mentioned the sea was so unusually
high that long, enormous, foam-crested waves rolled up to the very
parapet of the custom-house, a phenomenon scarcely ever seen before.

During my stay in Victoria, a town twenty miles south of the
colony, situate in a valley about 1,700 feet above the level of the sea,
I made the following observations as to the temperature of that place:

December ....••

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

701
86

74

69
86
72

69
75

72i

69

75
72

68

81i

71'

63
83
72

68

84
72

69

84
74

66

84

9 p. m... ...... ..........

The dry season has already set in, and my time is so much taken up
by botanical labors, on which my sustenance depends, that I am un-
able to give at present a more full and extended account of the climate
and other atmospherical phenomena of this region.

See page 183.

METEOROLOGY.

189

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METEOROLOGY.

207

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METEOROLOGY.

209

No. 3.

Occur retice of rain duriiuj the different ti tries of day, rera-pi.tul-ated from

table No. G e and 6/.

1856.
July

August

Srpt€mlier

October

November

December

lSo7.

Jnnu;iry . .
February

Total

Mean

March
April ,
May . .

8 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6

1
1
4^-

h.

1-3

fs

4 A

h m.

8-a^

4. m.

32 1 5

1
2

2
310

h.

3

2i%

_9_
1'.

l-»

1

1&
1

2-8-

13 A

A. m
1 42

5^_

h.

A.

h.

k.

A.

h.

h.

3

3ft

h%

4ft

8

8

5

3

•; 9

^ft

4ft

*^ft

7 6

'15

7ft

'^ft

«ft

W%

t;

8

5ft

? i»

3-^

5-e

4 •'

5-3

5 6

6 6

T^5

12

h\

»ft

•^ft

6ft

•V«.

•'^f'a

2

4ft

^"ft

'^X'S

^/ft

5ft

1

2t\

3

3ft

■^ 3
"12

3ft

3ft

'44

15j3g

^ft

8ft
38j«2

l*'ft

^ft

«f3

«iP,

22^-

-)911
'-12

A. m.

■>9ft

54j5g

4^ft

A. m.

A. m.

A. m.

A. »n.

A m.

A. tn

L 54

2 41)

4 60

a 37

7 27

6 48

5 27

A

ft

ift

1

ft

ft
ft

7

7

7ft

8ft

I Of 5

9

n.

" I;
1'.

H\

3

^12

2^,

34^4,

A. rn.
4 17

Total.

A.

45ft

4^ft

44

3'^ft
52i?.

25ft
5^ft

34Bft

A. tn,
43 31

6

81

14 s

21'

METEOROLOGY.

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METEOROLOGY.

No. 5.

Observations on the motion of strata of clouds of different heights at Colonia Tavar.

211

7 a.m.

9 a.m.

12 m.

3 p.m.

6 p. M.

Date.

Direction.

u

1

Direction.

c

Direction.

fa

Direction.

aj

hi
c

Direction.

1857.
Apl.3

W

1

W.SW...

i

W.SW..

N.NE....

1

2

Cir. and very high clouds.
Mid stra. 7,500—9,000 h.
Low. stra. 7,000—7,500 h.
Ili^h

N.NE....
E

2^
2

N.NE. ..
SE

2
3

Station . .

4

Station . .

SE

SW

3

NW

SE

WSW...

2
3
2

Middle

Lower.

High.

Middle.

5

N.NW...

S

N

W.SW..
S

"2
;<
1
3

3

W .'.'.'.'.'.'.

"n

S

N

8. &N...
S.SW. ...

3

1
2

3

S

3

6

High.

Middle.

s w

s

2
3

N

3

7

High.
Middle

s

SW

2
2

N

s

1
2i

S

21

Lower.

High.

Middle.

8

W

ssw. ..

2
3

"

9

S

3

SW

2

s

2

s

2

Lower.

High.

Middle

s

SE

3
3

10

s

3

s

w".'. !,'.'!
s

3

"si
3

s

3

s

Lower.

High.

Middle.

Lower.

High.

Middle

S

s

2
2

s

E

2
3

11

s

2

s

2

1

E.SE.,fog

I

E

3

E

3

s

1

Lower.

High.

Middle

12

13

s

1

S

1

Fog,N. w'd

3

ESE....

2i

is.sE....

3

Lower.

High.

Middle.

V. & SE.
SE

1
2i

Fob

Fog, E. . .

2^

1
2
3

14

NW

SE

s

High.
Middle-
Lower.

High.
Middle.
Lower.
Hioh.

15

SE

E

2

3

S

E

W

S

E

3

2
k

SE ,

SE

M.NW...

NW

SE

S.SE....

2

3

1

24

24

3

SE

S

2
2

16

s

"2

s

s

2
2

s

s

24
2i

S.SW....

s........

2
3

s

s

1^

Middle.

17

s

2

S

S

w

SE

2,1
2^
3

2|

s

2^

Lower.

High.

Middle.

w

S

2-J

2i

SW

SE

NW

2

1
1

18

s

2

SE

3

Lower.

High.

Middle.

SE

SE

2
2

SE

ESE

VV

2i

19

SE

2

S.&E...

2^

S

W

1
2

Lower.

High.

Middle.

W

W

2^
24
3

N

1

W

SW

NW

1
3

N

s

24

no

High.

W.NW..

2

NW

2i

NW

2^

Middle.

21

SW."!!!*.
N

....
1
2"

N

E

S

s.'.'.'.'.y.'.

2
1

2i

"2!

W

S

E

s.!'.!!!."

2
2

2i

High.
Middle.

22

High.
Middle.

s

2

3

s

SE

2
3

212

METEOROLOGY,
No. 5 — Continued.

E.

ESE.

SE.

SSE.

s.

^.SW.

sw.

w.sw

W.

W.NW

NW

V.NW

N.

iV.NE

NE

E.NE.

f]jo|i clnuii'^

"l
10

""5

11

"*i

1

19
W8

3
1

6
6

1

1

1

4
3
1

.....

3
4
3

"""3

Middle clouds

Lower clouds

1
2

4
3

11

.5

19

1

58

3

7 1 4

13 2

8

1

10

3

From this we see that during the time from April 3 to Atiril 22—

The E and ESE. rurrenis liave been chit fly in no olliir but the lov;cr ftrata.

The SE., S , and ri W currents have been cliiefly in no other but the lower and midrile strata.

The VV , W SW , and N. W. currents have been' chiefly in no other but the vjijicr and middle strata.

The N. cu rent has been in all three sirata, the upper, miildlc, and lower strata.
Or expre-sed in another manner —

In the vjipcr region occur chiefly W ,NW , W SW., N.

In the wiMIe region occur • hi. fly S., SE , W., SW., N., NW., N.NE.

In the lower region occur chiefly S., SK , E., E.SE.

CoLONiA TovAR, VENEZUELA, June 11, 1857.

Dear Sir : Your kind letter of March 5, was received by me in due
time, and a little box with eight pounds of mercury, for which I
thank you very much, came to hand somewhat later, on the 3d of May.

Soon after the receipt of the mercury I went to work to fill the
barometer tube accoiding to your directions ; but with every new trial
I ibund that the mercury fell more and moie below its standard
height, although I was certain there could be no air above it. At
first I could assign no cause for this failure ; but the fact that I was
losing regularly at every new trial suggested to me the idea, that in
handling the mercury the latter might have taken moisture from the
atmosphere. Accordingly, I placed the barometer tube containing the
mercuiy and a Torricellian vacuum in a nearly horizontal position
cautiously over a brisk charcoal fire, and in this way htatfd the
mercury for some time, until no more bubbles were disengaged. I
was hereby especially struck with the great quantity of escaping
moisture, and never thought that mercury could have taken up so
much from the atmosphere during the short period required lor filling
the tube. Can this property be due to the nitric acid, with which the
mercury may have been purified, and which is known to absorb mois-
ture from the air? Thus, by boiling, and at the same time making,
use of your directions, I succeeded perfectly well in bringing the level
of the mercury up to its standard value. In such a damp atmosphere
as this the boding of the mercury seems to be indispensable.

I have now the pleasur( to say, that since the 9th of May the
barometer may be considered to be as correct and precise as when I
first received it.

In a separate envelope accompanying my present communication, I
have the pleasure of sending you besides the meteorological registers
for six months, a short essay on the cause of the daily periodical
variations of the baroujeter, and a number of tables and diagrams.

METEOROLOGY. 213

Tables No. 2 a and 2 b contain half-hourly observations on the
daily periodical variation of the barometer for 31 days, made with a
view to determine the precise time of maximums and miniraums and
;the amount of daily am|:)litu(le. With regard to the latter, if we take
the mean of every six days in successit>n, beginning with the 10th of
'May, we get the following mean amplitudes: .OfiO, .070, .068, .066,
'.064; showing a gradual rise and fall in the numbers. The greatest
jraean amplitude is for the period from 16th to 2l8t May, so that even
ithese additional numbers are still in accordance with the view taken
iwithregaid to the amount of amplitude tor the different periods of
ithe .vear, allided to in my last letter. All the half hourly observa-
[tions u[) to June 9, inclusive, hitherto made by me on the subject of
i periodical variation, whicli are for 56 days, prove for the occurrence of
I the a. m. maximum, the average time to be at IQh. lO^m. a. m., and for
Ithe J), ra. minimum 4/i. Z\^m. p. m., which seems to agree pretty well
with the time of daily maximums and minimums found in other parts
of tlie globe.

Table No. 3 is to exhibit the cumber of hours of rain during the
diftt'rent times of the day for each month from July, 1856, to May,
1857, recapitulated from tables No. 6 e and/. The vertical distance
of the curve a b c from the base a d gives us the mean value of dura-
tion of rain for any given time of the day between 6 a. m. and 6 p. m.
This curve is the expression of the mean for eight months from July,
1856, to February, 1857, and is laid down according to the mean
numbers directly above it. It demonstrates very plainly that in the
moining between 6 and 7 there was no rain; but with the advance
of the day the rain augmented and reached its maximum between 2
and 3 p. m., whence it gradually abated towards evening. During
the night it very seldom rains. Mr. Boussingault's observations,
which he made in another part of South America near Marraato, prove
that at that jjjace more rain fell at night than during the day ; and he
says, in his Rural Economy, "every one in South America allows that
it rains principally during the night." Now this is in direct opposi-
tion with my observations here, and it shows, therefore, that a ceitain
state of the weather, especially with regard to rain, may sometimes be
limited to small districts only.

From table No. 3 we also see that the month of February, which
is commonly considered to be one of the dryest of the ; ear, and pro-
perly belonging to the very centre of the dry season, has been the
wettest mouth of the year, with the exception of May. The dryest
months were March and April.

By a glance at the tables No. 6 a to 6 /, we may have a ready
survey over the dry and wet months of the year and the distribution
of rain in general. Here we tind that the limits of the dry and the
rainy seasons are not very distinct, and from May, 1854, till the end
of 1855, a period of 20 months, we find no well defined dry season,
the mduth of February, 1855, being the dryest. But with New Year's
Day, 1856, there commences a dry season which lasts for five months,
the longest and dryest the colonists ever enjoyed. And it was in this
extraordinary dry period that the loose layer of half decomposed vege-

214

METEOROLOGY.

table matter, of which I spoke in my last letter, got to be dry enou^^h
to take fire. °

The dry season of the present year we recognize only in the months
of March and April and a part of January. From inquiry, I learn
that well defined dry seasons have also been rather rare previous to
my stay in the colony.

Table No. 4 gives the course of the clouds for seven months. The
most numerous direction is as usual from south and east and the points
intermediate amounting to 293. As a striking feature may be noticed
the increase m the number of currents from the south since January,
when there are only six, while in April we find 37 and in May 31.
This may well account for the fact, which captains of vessels trading
between the United States and the coast of Venezuela have noticed so
frequently, of meeting during the months of April and May with
steady blowing southern breezes, and which I had an opportunity to
notice myself on my last voyage to Laguayra. In some places east of
the colony, on the back of the Cordilleras of the coast, I have experienced
this steady current from the south as often as I had occasion to
traverse this region on my way to Caracas, with the exception of only
once. It amounts sometimes to a strong breeze. Other colonists,
who frequent this road more than I do, have noticed this remarkable
wind nearly at all times of the year.

e ^

sea

^mx^'-NW ^^^\ Av'^ A\ \

N

S

Several times I had a most excellent opportunity for observing and
tracing the course of this southern current to a great distance in the
direction south and north. I was then standing on the very crest of
the mountains of Hie coast, having a view towards the north upon the
sea, and towards the south over a part of the fertile valleys of Aragua.
Scattered masses of clouds showed plainly by their motion the direc-
tion of the current in a long line, whence it came and whither it went.
The annexed figure may serve to give a somewhat clearer idea. It is
to represent a vertical section of the territory from south to north, a
the place of observation, V the valleys between the northern and
southern ranges, c c clouds moving witli the eastern trade-winds
towards the west, the line b d the track of the high southern current,
which had a velocity of about twelve miles per hour, and a somewhat
sinking tendency, until it struck the northern range, where it was
forced upwards for a short distance until it reached the crest, and
then went on unobstructed on the other side of the mountains, in a
horizontal line, apparently lowering but very little, leaving hereby
the eastern trade-winds of the sea tar below and undisturbed in their
regular and steady course, which is nearly at right angles to that of

METEOROLOGY. - 215

the former. The lower clouds of the valleys showed plainly a motion
from east to west, as seen against the dark background of the south-
ern mountains. The high southern current was not indicated by
clouds in those places where it was vertically over the lowest parts of
the valley ; but when drawing nearer to the Cordilleras, on which I
stood, the vapors which it contained condensed rapidly, and became
visible as drifting, incoherent clouds sweeping by, and which could
still be seen on the sea-side as long as they floated over the dense
primeval forest, which extends here from the mountains' tops to the
ver}' margin of the sea.

Here I rnay also remark that the great amount of cloudiness, which
in some respects may be regarded as a disadvantage to observation,
offers, with regard to the currents of the atmosphere, great advan-
tages, the condensed vapors indicating the various motions and direc-
tions of these currents, and I have had, therefore, opportunities to
observe them in most of their various forms. Sometimes I have seen
the air ascend and descend vertically with considerable velocity, at
other times pushed up the inclined planes of mountain flanks on one
side until reaching the crest, and then gliding or flowing down on
the other side somewhat like a liquid, following in its course the most
depressed localities and ravines in all their windings. Sometimes the
eastern currents may be seen in their gradually ascending but nearly
horizontal course to meet the higher southern current at right angles,
and, without mixing, to be deflected by the latter in a horizontal semi-
circle, or downward or upward, as the case may be. I have also seen
two opposite currents meet, when each endeavored to force its antago-
nist back with alternate success and failure^ until one got the better
over the other, and at last kept undisputed sway.

At certain seasons of the year we may see extensive sheets of cloudy
masses press closely over the northern or the southern range of the
colony valley, and gliding down the declivity for a short distance
become invisible and disappear in crossing the cultivated part of the
valley, but reappear again on drawing near the opposite ridge. Fre-
quently I have seen immense masses of clouds leaning against the
northern side of the crest of the mountains, and as if stuck to them, for
whole days, and while the base was gently sliding upwards towards
the south, the top of the cloud, which was towering above the moun-
tains, was bent back and moving slowly in an opposite direction.

When standing on some high mountain, esjjecially early in the
morning, I have seen dazzling white coherent masses of clouds filling
up far below me whole valleys, the surface of these clouds representing
immense and level snow fields, from which, in a most lovely and
striking contrast, the green summits of the smaller mountains pro-
truded as so many islets, or higher and lesser promontories of a frozen
arm of the ocean. The delusion is sometimes most complete, and
cannot be viewed without feelings of pleasure and surprise. The ele-
vation oi the upper surlace of these clouds was between 5,000 and 6,000
feet above the level of the sea.

A striking feature in table No. 4 may be found in the prevalence of
northern currents from November till February, inclusive, while they
are much rarer or entirely wanting in March, April, and May.

216 METEOROLOGY.

Among the number of days free from clouds we find that at 2 p. m.
throug^hout all the twelve months there was only one sintrle day where
the sky was entirely clear, but at 9 p. m. we liad a clear sky on eighty-
eight days. In the month of September the sky was during all the
ninety observatinns made in that month more or less clouded. At 2
p. m. the sky was entirely overcast on one hundred and thirty-five
days. In May it was entirely overcast during forty-seven observations.
The number of rainy days is two hundred and thirteen.

Table No. 5 contains observations on the motion of strata of clouds
of different heights.

Observations on the motion of the highest clouds would be very
important, but in this region we are unable to make a great number
of such observations on account of the cloudy state of the sky, and we
have to make the best of the few opportunities we may now and then
get. As April is one of the most favorable months for this purpose,
1 have chosen this time, and have taken peculiar pains in collecting
the facts contained in table No 5. The greatest difficulty hereby ex-
ists in telling exactly which of the many different thin strata of clouds
are the higher and which the lower ones. I was sometimes obliged
to watch them for ten minutes right over head ; but knowing that
inaccurate observations are infinitely worse than none at all, I did not
shun any inconvenience to arrive at the true motion of the different
strata.

From this table we see that in the upper and highest regions the
following winds were observed chiefly to occur: W.NW., W.SW.,
N. ; in the middle regi' ns, sav from 7,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea,
S SE., W.SW., N.NW., N.NE ; and in the lower region, say from
7,000 down to 5,000 feet and still lower, S.SE., E., ESE.

I may here remark that, from long continued observation on the
motion of the clouds, 1 am inclined to believe that all the easterly
winds of this region are gradually ascending in their course towards
the west, while the southern as well as the western currents are
gradually descending in their course.

Diagram No. 7 gives a view of the curve of mean monthly tempera-
ture for Colonia Tovar compared with the curves for New Orleans, St.
Louis, Missouri, and Boothia Felix. I have chosen these three latter
places because they are all North American, and lying nearly under
one and the same degree of longitude, but in difierent latitudes ;
Boothia Felix in north latitude 70.2°.

Diagram No. 8 contains all the mean daily heights of the barometer
from November 7, 1856, to April 30, 1857, and from May 9 to June 3.
A similar diagram for June to October. 1856, I have sent alrea ly with
one of my former letters. At that time I remarked that a kind of
periodical rising and falling in periods from four to five days was ob-
servable, but I did not then expect that this rule would hold out for
the remainder of the year. ' But after I had finished diagram No. 8,
merely to see what kind of curve these months would present to the
eye, I was struck with its appearance in siiape, and induced to count
the days from vertex to vertex, which, commencing with November
11, gave me the following numbers : 6, 5, 2, 5, 6, 4, 4^ 3, 6, 4, 6, 3

METEOROLOGY. 217

5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 7, 3, 5, 4, 5, 3, 6, 6, 4, 4, 2, 4, 6, 5, 5, 3, 7, 4, 6, 4 =
167, of which the mean is 4.5 days, as the mean period occurring be-
tween every two succes-sive heights or vertices.

The same process applied to the former diagram of the months of
June to October, 1856, gives me the following numbers: 5, 4, 5, 3,
5, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 5, 4, 6, 3, 4, 3, 4, 3, 6, 4, 3, 4, 6, 10, {= 2 + 5,)
5, 5, 5 =: 128, of which the mean number is 4.4 days. For May,
1857, commencing with the 14th, the numbers are 3, 5, 5, 5, 3.

No m-itter whether the barometer had a perfect vacuum or nof , the
features of this remarkable phenom^enon are the same. The two series
of the above numbers, and the coincidence of their mean value, prove
beyond a doubt that they are not the result of mere accident ; but that
this i)eriodical fluctuation in the pressure of the atmosphere is subject
to a certain law, of whicli I am ignorant.

l>iaiiram No. 9 exhibits two curves of the mean temperature for
Colonia Tovar for twelve months. The upper curve is the result of
noting down the mean temperature for evexy third port of the month,
and presents quite a different appearance compared with the lower
curve, in which are noted down the mean temperatures of the whole
months only. The latter part of April and the middle of September
show the highest, and the middle of January the lowest teniperature.
July has usually a lower temperature than the three months on either
side of it. The mean temj)eratures of the four meteorological seasons
present the curious fact that three of them, spring, summer, and
autumn, have exactly the same temperature, viz : 58.9, even to a
fraction. The mean tem}»erature of the year is 58.2 ; difference be-
tween the coldest and warmest month, 5.3.

The temperature of the primeval forest, about two hundred yards
distant from my dwelling, was, on the 25th of April, at \h. iSOm.
p. m., 61°, at the margin 64°, when at ray house the thermometer
was 65°. In a shady ravine I stuck the thermometer four inches deep
into the spongy brown vegetable mould at different times of the day,
and found the temperature always 59°, pretty near the mean tem-
perature of the year. 58° or 59° may be considered to be the constant
temi)erature of this region about twelve inches below the surface of
the y;round in shady places.

I have often observed that, whenever the sun breaks through the
clouds and has been shining for a couple of hours, the thermom-
eter fluctuates frequently very suddenly from one to four degrees,
according as it is touched by a warmer or colder current of air pro-
ceeding from the diifrently heated localities of the soil; but when
the sky is entirely overcast such changes never take place.

It seems somewhat remakable that, at Colonia Tovar, no heavy
thunder-storms occur. Thunder and lightning are seldom strong
enough to deserve to be mentioned. Trusting to past experience
with regard to the absence ol tempests, hurricanes, and whirlwinds,
I have covered the roof of my house with very thin and light shingles,
not nailed down, as is done in the States, but merely hung loosely
upon laths without any weather-boarding at all. And yet, for two

2 1 8 METEOROLOGY.

years, they have remained in this position undisturbed by winds and
weather.

The stars are here seen to scintillate on every clear evening the
same as they do in hii^her latitudes, with the exception of a small
area in the zenith of about 45 degrees, where they have their steady
planetary light mentioned by Humboldt, and to be observed in lower
regions. The zodiacal light I have never been able to see in the
colony, although I have looked for it every clear evening.

Besides the already enumerated tables and diagrams, I have also
inclosed four sheets of copies of sculptured rocks, or, as they are called
in this country, " piedras pintadas," (painted stones.)

These rocks, which I have found in diiferent regions, in low hot
valleys as well as on high cold mountains, seem to be the work of one
and the same race of men. The original figures are on a large scale.
A few well-preserved spots, sheltered by a layer of sandy soil against
the destructive influence of the atmosphere, show that the outlines of
these figures are grooves, engraved or chiseled very smoothly and
regularly to the depth of at least an inch in the hardest rock, and
evinces a skill which would do credit to any of the civilized inhabitants
now living in this country, even when aided by tools of steel There
is no mere scratching about them ; they have been sculptured. They
show clearly that they were worked to last, and to outlive full many
a change in the history of nations. The delineations are in all of
them, whether from the sultry and insalubrious coast of Puerto
Cabello, or from the cold mountain regions of the colony, of the same
kind of workmanship, consisting of grooves about an inch wide and
an inch deep.

Time has worked sadly at most of these stones, and on some of
them I found only traces of figures.

All these rocks I found by accident in my botanical rambles, in
places where I never would have ventured to penetrate, and where I
was led by necessity when strayed and trying to find my way back.

Whatever may be said of these figures, patiently worked into the
rock, they were not done without a certain design. Whether they
were intended to convey any peculiar meaning, or none at all, the
Indians have hereby bequeathed to us the means of comparing them
with similar monuments in other distant regions. So much is certain,
they were worked with the intention to remain there for a long period
of time, and to be looked at by posterity. These figures consist in
images of objects, with which their makers were surrounded and ac-
qua nted, as, for instance, alligators or large lizards, snakes, tigers,
canoes, sun, moon, human heads, &c., but show no signs of imple-
ments of civilization. Therefore these figures may be supposed to
date anterior to the conquest of the country by the Spaniards. No
record of the existence of these rocks, I suppose, has hitherto ever been
made, for this region has been discovered l)ut very lately, and none
of the natives living in the neighboring valleys have known anything
about them. In this case I may have been the first and only stranger
who ever beheld their yet lasting works, of which they took so much
pains to make a show in after years.

METEOROLOGY. 219

But how fallacious are often the most unpretending expectations of
nations as well as of individuals. These Indians, as a tribe or nation,
may have removed, or become extinct, or been driven away ; for cer-
tain it is that they are gone, and have vanished from this region.
Month after month and year after year (until amounting to centuries)
went silently on over the only yet remaining witnesses of their existence.
The luminaries of day and night had their glittering rays alternately
reflected from the inclined and even surfaces of these rocks ; the rain
ran down innumerable times as from a roof and washed the figures
clean. Wind and water and oxygen and beat worked slowly but
effectually at the destruction of the figure-furrowed surface, and suc-
ceeded but too well. But no one fcarae to wonder at the skill and
patience of their makers. Fifty or a hundred years more would have
done their destructive work com{)letely, and these figures would have
vanished and gone, probably without having been noticed even by a
single individual.

Occupied with such reflections as these, when seated near the sim-
ple memorials just spoken of, I feel myself richly remunerated for all
my fatigue and the trouble to snatch them from oblivion.

That these sculptured rocks were intended to be seen and noticed is
proved by the fact that they are never found in the primeval forest,
but most generally in some prominent part of a savannah, bordering
on the forest, although now overgrown with brushwood and reeds.
Some of the figures were found in a place partly overgrown with small
trees, or rather shrubs of a stunted growth, mostly of small specimens
of clusia, which fact may prove how slowly a dry savannah, even when
undisturbed by fire, is rechanged again into a forest ; while it takes
but a few years to change, by the aid of fire, a forest into a savannah.

These localities show, also, clearly enough to a person acquainted
with the mode of agriculture in the mountainous districts that the
Indians have subsisted on agriculture and not on the chase, for by the
latter not even a dozen individuals could keep themselves alive for any
length of time, much less a whole tribe.

The barometer which I carried to the region of the sculptured rocks
assigns to them a height of about 5,900 feet above the ocean. When
we consider the wet, cold, disagreeable, and foggy weather which
prevails during the greater part of the year in this region, where the
Creoles, in coming up from the warmer valleys, sometimes shiver with
cold, where the banana and other cultivated tropical plants seldom
bear fruit, and where Indian corn can only be raised with difficulty
or not at all, we may perhaps be inclined to think that the Indians
chose this cold region from predilection; and in this case might proba-
bly have descended from the same stock that peopled and preferred
the high regions of the Peruvian Andes. But when we afterwards
find similar rocks near the hot and sultry coast of Puerto C<bello, and
in other low valleys, the above inferences would have to undergo con-
siderable modification.

A corn or maize-grinder is in general use amongst the Creoles of
Venezuela, which, considering its very rude and simple construction,

220

METEOSOLOGY.

seems not to be of European invention. It consists merely of a flat

stone a ]| foot long,
14 inches wide, and 3
inches thick, somewhat
convex on the lower
and concave on the
upper surface ; the con-
cavity h is flat, and 7
inches wide. The run-
ner r, with which the
corn is crushed, is a
stone about 5 inches
long, 3 inches wide, and
o^ an oval form, so as to
fit the concavity b. The
person crushing the corn
stands near the upper
end of the stone, and
holds the runner with
botli hands, and in crushing the previously soaked and somewhat
pounded corn brings to bear nearly the whole w-eight of the upper
part of the body upon the runner. The ground pulpy mass is shoved
ofF at the lower end of the stone into, some vessel. If the pulp is not
fiue enough it is crushed over again. This pulp, washed to remove
the 8kins of the corn, and then baked upon hot stoves, constitutes the
bread of all the Creoles not living in town. The whole work of
pounding and crushing is performed by females, and is a most tedious
drudgery. It is really astonishing that the people here have not yet
made use of the iron corn-grinders used so universally in the back-
woods of the United States, although they can be bought at Caracas.
The above rude corn-grinder, or rather corn-crusher, is used also to
crush roaeted coffee, cocoa, and salt, and has been even adopted by
some German families. I have been explicit on this subject, because
in Emory's "Notes of a Military Reconnaissance," page 133, I find
made mention of a similar corn grinder used among the Pimos ; but
whether it is of the same shape as these here I have no means to
learn.

Barometrical measurement shows that the river Tuy, seven or eight
miles to the 8 SE of Colonia Tovar, is only about 3,100 feet above
the level of the sea, while at Colonia Tovar it is at least 6,000 ieet.
This river has therefore a descent of nearly 3,000 feet within eight
miles, or, on an average, a fall of 375 feet per mile. Such is the terri-
tory of tlie colony.

On the 28th of May I carried the barometer to the " Picacho," one
of the highest peaks in the neighborhood of the colony, and found
the height of the mercury at 9i a. m. 22,736, thermometer 69^, from
which 1 conclude that this mountain may be only 500 or 600 feet in-
ferior in height to the "Silla" of Caracas, the highest peak of the
coast range of Venezuela.

In travelling irom Victoria towards Valencia we find, about three

METEOROLOGY. 221

miles west of Tarmero, right in the middle of the road, the famous
" Zamanijf," an enormous tree, so well described hy Alexander V.
Humboldt. Its heal, formed by enormous horizontal branches, is tbe
most remarkable part of this giant of trees. A section of its head
would present a shape as shown in the marginal figure.

I measured the head in its greatest diame-
ter from E «E. to W.NW. most careiully,
and found it to be 206 feet 11 inches, English.

Fifty-seven years ago it was found by ' — ^

Humboldt to measure in its greatest diameter 192 feet, Fr,ench mea-
sure, which would be equal to 204.48 feet, English. Hence, it follows
that this tree has within the last 57 years increased the horizontal
diameter of its head only by 2 feet 5 inches, English. The branches
are loaded with a wonderful mass of epiphytes and parasites ; and it
seems surprising that branches of nearly 100 feet in length, standing
horizontally out from the trunk, can support for centuries, besides
their own astonishing weight, such an extra load of heavy plants as
Bromeliaceai, Orchideje, Cactese, Loranthacefe, Piperaceee, &c.

This extraordinary tree is but thinly covered with leaves ; it looks
as if it lacks vigor to issue new slender branchlets, for its ultimate
branchlets are old, short, thick, and of stunted growth.

Setting out from Fetaquire, (a place nearly as high as the colony,)
on the 8th of February, in an excursion towards the sea coast^ my at-
tention was directed to some coioti^ees. The space over which they
were distributed was but very limited in the direction north and
south, but extended more towards east and west, and was about
3,500 feet above the sea Their external appearance, the shape of the
truok and leaves, agreed exactly with the description givea by Alex-
ander V. Humboldt. Most of them wore trees of 1 to 1^ foot in
diameter, but very tall. I also found some younger ones of 5 inches
diameter. In seven or eight of these trees of diti'erent age and di-
mensions, I made incisions, to see the milk flow. Although it was
about the same season of the year when Mr, A. V. Humboldt saw
the cow- tree between Valencia and Puerto Cabelio, I never could elicit
from then much more than 1 or 2 drops in a second of time. There
was not much difference in the flow of milk between the larger and
the smaller trees ; and if ever I was disappointed in my expectations I
certainly was on this occasion as to the quantity of milk. The milk
has an agreeable, mild, rather rich taste, and becomes somewhat sticky
between the fingers. People who live not far off, and have tried these
cow-trees in different years, do not praise much their milk-yielding
qualities. The cow-trees grow in the midst of shady, humid forests,
at an elevation of about 3,000 or 4,000 feet, along the sea-fronting
declivities of the high mountain range, stretching from east to west
along the northern coast of Venezuela. I have neither seen the fruit
nor the flowers of this tree ; but in comparing its leaves with leaves of
plants in my herbarium, I find the closest resemblance in shape,
structure and venation with some species of fig-trees. The wood is
white and of considerable hardness.

I passed the night in the midst of an immense forest^ on a thin
layer of dried grass, in a small, uninhabited^ open shed, (a plantain

222 METEOROLOGY.

leaf thatcbed roof, resting upon six isolated posts,) near to which a
tiger was said to have his range. Towards evening torrents of rain
poured down ; but the night was still and undisturbed, except by the
rushing mountain-stream at some distance oif, which appeared to the
watchful ear like the hollow rustling of a forest in a gale of wind.
One solitary bird near by made the spot still more melancholy by
its mournful notes, which it sent forth from time to time throughout
the night, unanswered by anything living.

These damp and shady primeval forests, especially when fronting
the sea, ar^ also to be noted for the great amount of ferns, with regard
to species as well as to individuals. This beautiful class of plants, of
which I have already collected 489 species within a comparatively
small part of the country, loves moisture, shade, and stagnoMt air, and
rarely ever succeeds in a climate or region which lacks these three
great necessary conditions. With regard to number of individuals,
the different heights show no marked effect. I found them in masses
equally dense at 1,50U and 6,500 feet elevation ; and I have descended
and ascended the flanks of the coast-chain in five different regions.

The only difference we see is the change of species in different
heights, and even here we find many species to extend over a great
area of different elevation ; but most species are rather of a local habit.

We can, therefore, from the amount of ferns which occurs in any
given place, not very well deduce the mean temperature of that place,
as is sometimes done in geology, in conjectures about the temperature
of the earth's surface at the time of deposition of the coal fields, unless
we know what temperature belongs to the luxuriant growth of that
very species which we wish to draw conclusions from. The yearly
mean temperature of the fern region may vary from 56° to 80° F^

CoLONiA TovAR, VENEZUELA, January 10, 1858.

Dear Sir: Under date of June 11, 1857, I sent you a letter, to-
gether with some meteorological registers and a number of tables and
diagrams, which you probably will have received in due time. In-
closed I send you now —

No. 1. Registers of meteorological observations for seven months,
viz : from June to December, 1857, inclusive.

No. 2. A table showing by the length of horizontal lines at what
time of the day it rained at Colonia Tovar for each day from June to
December, 1857, inclusive.

No. 3. A table containing a recapitulation of the occurrence of
rain expressed in number of hours, for all the months from July,
1856, to December, 1857, from 6 a. m. to 10 p. m. This table also
shows by the length of straight lines the comparative value for
each month, as regards the number of hours of rain ; and in another
diagram the mean rain value for each hour from 6 a. m. to 10 p. m.

It may not be uninteresting here to see what a symmetrical figure
the curve a b c represents ; how it rises gradually from 6 a. m. to the

METEOEOLOGY. 223

hour between 2 and 3 p. m., and tlien sinks to 10 p. m. nearly as
gradually as it rose.

No. 4. A table giving the course of the clouds of the higher, mid-
dle, and lower strata for the months of June to December, 1857.
The motion of the clouds from the E., E.SE., 8E., S.SE., and S. is
by far the most prevailing, amounting to 415, while the motions from
all the other eleven points amount only to 133. November and De-
cember show, as usually, a preponderance over the eight preceding
mouths with regard to motion of the clouds from the northern re-
gions. The motions from the west, with only one exception, took
place in the highest regions of the atmosphere. This puts me in
mind of the fact that, while at Santa Fe, New Mexico, the steady
course of the higher clouds from the west had frequently attracted
my attention.

No. 5 gives a view of the fluctuation of the mean daily heights of
the barometer for seven months. My remarks in a former letter about
the falling and rising of the mean daily height of the barometer,
which from one maximum to another requires, on an average, 4| days,
still hold good, as will be seen by the following series of numbers,
which are the number of days counted from one maximum height to
the next following one.

Beginning with my earliest barometrical observations, counting
from the 14th of June, 1856, and ending with the 30th of October,
1856, the day on which the barometer got out of order, we have: 5,

4, 5, 3, 5, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 5, 4, 6, 3, 4, 3, 4, 3, 6, 4, 3, 4, 6, 10, 5,

5, 5 = 128 days, of which the mean is 4.57 days.

JL3eginning again, when the barometer was put into use, with the
12th of November, 1856, and ending with the 30th of April, 1857,
the day on which the barometer was taken apart to be mended, we
get : 6, 5, 2, 5, 6, 4, 4, 3, 6, 4, 6, 3, 5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 7, 3, 5, 4, 5, 3, 6,

6, 4, 4, 2, 4, 6, 5, 5, 3, 7, 4, 6, 4, 2 = 169 days, of which the mean
is 4.45 days.

Beginning again, when the barometer was in good order, with the
13th of Mav, 1857, and ending with the 31st of December, 1857, we
get: 2, 3, 5, 5, 5, 3, 4, 5, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 2, 4, 8, 4, 4, 5, 3, 4, 7, 2, 5,
4, 4, 5, 6, 5, 4, 5, 2, 4, 4, 2, 5, 3, 7, 7, 5, 4, 4, 5, 6, 4, 5, 10, 8, 6,
6, 3 ^ 230 days, of which the mean is 4.51 days.

The mean of all these three series is 4.51 days.

No. 6 contains the half-hourly observations on the daily periodical
variations of the barometer for 157 days, which, together with those
made from the 10th of May to the 10th of Juno, amount to 186 days,
including more than 2,000 half-hourly observations of the barometer.
Duiing these seven months* I was, if I may use the expression, " liv-
ing under the clock ;" for I had to keep a continual lookout for the
arrival of the moment when one half hour after another would be up.

How often was I interrupted in my out-door manual labors in order
to attend to these observations ! And but the desire to help carry a
few useful materials towards the building ground of the great struc-
ture of meteorology, which no doubt one day will be reared in all its
perfection, could keep me at work with patience unwearied. I should
have continued these half-hourly observations still longer, but my

224 METEOROLOGY.

other engagements multiplied so much that I fonnd it utterly impos-
sible to do 80. The clock I used is a first rate time-piece, and was
compared, from time to time, with the meridian line laid down by
observation of the north star.

No. 7 contains the mean barometrical height* of all the half-hourly
observations made in 1857, recapitulated chiefly from table No 6, to
"which are added the monthly means of the barometer at 7 a. m.,
2 p. m., and 9 p. m. These latter means are not the means of the
tvhole months, but of those days only on which half-hourly observa-
tions have been made.

No. 8 exhibits the curves of mean height of the barometer in its
course from 7 a. m. to 9 p. m., laid down according to the numbers
in table No. 7. We find these curves to be much more regular, and
more gradually and smoothly rounded off in proportion to the number
of days, of which they are the mean result. So is, for instance, the
curve c, resulting from the mean of eight months, more smoothly
rounded than the curve of the month of August or that of May ; and
these again more smoothly rounded than the curves resulting from
single days, which I have sent in my previous communications to you,
and whicii are more or less angular.

The curve c in diagram No. 8 may therefore serve to illustrate the
true and normal course of the periodical rise and fall of the barome-
ter from 7 a. m. to 9 p. m. Its rise and fall from 9| to 11 a. m.,
and from 4 to 5 p. m., are very inconsiderable ; butfrom 1 to 2| p. m.,
and from 7 to 9 a. m., far more rapid. There exists also a dilference
in the shape of the curve of the month of August compared with that
of the month of May.

No. 9 contains the mean amplitudes of the barometer, calculated
from table No. 6, for periods fi'om six to six successive days; also, the
mean am])litudes for periods from 12 to 12 days, and likewise those
for the different months. All these mean amplitudes are laid down
in diagram No. 10, in their proper position, according to their numeri-
cal value.

No, 10. The monthly means in the first curve exhibit a pretty
regularly rounded curve. The second curve, that is, the curve of the
twelve daily means, is somewhat more irregular. The third, or six
daily' curve, is still more irregular, exhibiting many projecting
corners. The fourth and lowermost, which can no longer be called
a curve, and of which, to save time, I have given only a small portion,
exhibits in a striking manner the great fluctuation of the daily am-
plitudes.

At first view there seems to be not the^ least tendency in them to
follow a certain law with regard to their mean value. This law,
however, becouies apparent, when we look at the next curve above,
and still more so in the two uppermost curves. The third curve
shows, also, that the nature of the curve of mean amplitudes is not
the same in every year ; in 1857, for instance, it is much higher from
October to December than it was in LS56. All this indicates plainly
enough that the daily amplitudes of the barometer are subject to
great disturbances by -some cause or other.

Great as the irregularities caused by such disturbances are in tlie

METEOROLOGY. 225

above curve, they do not invalidate the view I advanced in a former
letter about the nature of this cuive, as it ought to be in its normal
value. In their main features both coincide, if we make due allow-
ance for the short period during which these observations have been
continued. The curve in diagram No. 10 having its first maximum
near the 18th of May, its minimum near the 8th of July, and its
second maximum near the 2*7th of October, and if we were to draw a
mean line between the heights of 1856 and 1857, the second maximum
would be near the 3d instead of the 27th of October.

No. 11. In order to compare the course of the morning temperature
of Colonia Tovar with that of some place of the southern part of the
United States, I have in diagram No. 11 laid down in dotted line the
course of the temperature at 7 a. m. for the different days of March,,,
1852, as observed by me at Memphis, Tennessee, with the same ther-
mometer with which I made my first observations at Colonia Tovar.
The other line is the course of temperature at 7 a. m. for the different
days of March, 1857, at Colonia Tovar.

Besides the regular observations specified above, I have made from
time to time, just as occasion offered, memoranda on many other me-
teorological subjects which came under my observation. These memo-
randa were made either at the time of observation or immediately
after. They are rather numerous, and for want of time I am unable
at present to arrange them properly, or to make a selection from
among them.

I may^ however, afford so much time as to give the following :

July 27. In pre}taring for a journey to La Victoria, I rose early in
the morning. At 4^ a. m. there was a dense fog. Intending to step
out, and opening the kitchen door which leads into the open air, I
saw the sprightly burning kitchen fire reflected from the fog as from
a white, smooth, and solid wall ; and, besides this, a halo of about
twenty feet diameter, as plain and well defined as I ever saw around
the moon. This halo, with the reflected fire in its centre, appeared
to be close before me in a vertical plain, and it changed its position
whenever I changed mine, either to the right or to the left.

At a first superficial glance upon the map it may seem as if the
northern coast of Venezuela, on account of its great distance, can have
nothing to do with the climate of the United States, or that the me-
teorology of the two countries can have no feature common to both ;
but observation proves it to be otherwise. And if we take a more
comprehensive view of this vast region, we see that the Mexican gulf,
together with the Caribbean sea, is nothing more than a great inland
sea basin with numerous and spacious entrances to the northeast and
east. Five States of the Union forming its northern shore ; Venezuela,
New Grenada, and Central America, its opposite or southern shore.
Here I may also remark about the Venezuelan mountain range of the
coast, that its northern declivity towards the sea is generally very
steep, and in many places near its crest bearing marks of immense
masses of its body having sunk on that side far below its original
level, while on the other or southern side, no such marks are visible.

If we want to study in Venezuela the mutual influence of atmos-
pheric currents of these two opposite shores, viz : The southern coast
15 s

226 METEOROLOGY.

of the United states, and the northern of Venezuela^ we must not try-
to do it on that low and extremely narrow strip of land, which, bor-
dering the sea, stretches along the foot of the mountain chain running
east and west, parallel with the seashore. This low and narrow strip
of land has a climate of its own widely different from that of the Uni-
ted States. But when we take our abode on or near the top of the
mountain ridge where we are above the steady eastern trade winds, ,
and find ourselves in quite a different set of atmospheric currents, and I
if we then pay particular attention to the more violent northerly ■
winds, which now and then blow in this region, and to the great ;
southerly current, which lowers gradually in its course, reaches the :
surface of the sea somewhere between latitude 16"^ and 26° north, and
generally blows steady during a great part of the summer and fall of
the year up the Mississippi valley, even beyond latitude 39° north ;*
we then will recognize in the moisture-laden southeastern, as well as
in the dry and chilling northwestern, by their very peculiarities, their
namesakes of the United States.

It is but five or six times a year that I am fortunate enough to get
hold of a few newspapers in these mountain solitudes, and it is seldom
that they contain anything regarding the weather of the United
States. However, I have read, only a few days ago, in a New York
paper of August 22, 1857, the following:

"A private letter from New Orleans states that up to the 18th
instant, it had rained there every day for thirty-eight days consecu-
tively, and was still raining."

Now, by referring to my register of meteorology I find a singular
coincidence between the occurrence of rain at New Orleans and Colonia
Tovar. The inclosed table No. 2 exhibits this more strikingly, for
we see here at once, that of all the seven months there is no other
equally long period that can compare with the period (rom July 18,
to August 20, with regard to the number of rainy hours.

The following sentence from the Weekly Herald of September 5,

1857:

" From New Mexico. The season has been unusually dry and cold,
and the crops look very badly. So little rain has fallen that the little
stream near Santa Fe is dried up," shows that the rain-spending
southeast current of the atmosphere, which soaked in the month of
August the soils of Colonia Tovar and New Orleans, never was felt at
Santa Fe, New Mexico ; and that there is a closer correspondence
between the aereal strata of the coast of Venezuela and the lower ones
of Louisiana, than between those of Louisiana and those of Santa Fe,
although the distance in a straight line between the two former places
is more than double the distance between New Orleans and Santa Fe.

Again, we find in the Weekly Herald of January 17, 1857 :

" A terrific hurricane swept over the city and harbor of Vera Cruz
on the 20th of December," and " a heavy northerly gale had prevailed
for several days previous to the 25th of December (at Havana.")

My meteorologicul register of Colonia Tovar shows, on the 17th of

* While living at St. Louis, Missouri, I had a good opportunity to notice, during several
years, in July, August, and September, a steady southerly breeze almost day after day. In
some years, however, this wind blows less regular than in other years.

METEOROLOGY. 227

December, 1856, at 7 a. id., north wind, 4.; on the 19th, at 7 a.m., clouds
from the north, 4. ; on the 20th, at 7 a. m,, clouds trom the north, 3. ;
at 9 p. m., clouds from the north, 4. Number 4, as an indication of
force attached to the winds or the clouds is extremely rare in the
register for Colonia Tovar, and therefore denotes something extraor-
dinary. The mean barometer height was remarkably low on the ] 9th,
20th, and 23d of December, vid : diagram of mean barometer height
for 1856.

I could, no doubt, cite many more instances of this kind if I had
the means to know what is going on in other parts of the world.

To make observations in this country about the higher strata of the
atmosphere and their motions, no place, I should think, would be
more adapted than the mountains of Merida, which are said to reach
the line of perpetual snow. There we have a gigantic range of snow-
capped mountains stretching from southwest to northeast. Its base is
washed on one side by the warm waters of the gulf of Maracaybo, that
great arm of the sea, which runs far inland, and expands in a vast
basin near the mountains. On the other side lie^ in near approach,
those immense, level, grassy plains, the Llanos of Venezuela, which
are but slightly elevated above the level of the sea, and entirely bare
I of forest.

When in the dry season the sun, unobstructed by clouds, acts upon

the extensive sheet of the already very warm water of the gulf, with

all the power of its nearly vertical rays, the quantity of vapor carried

into the air by evaporation must be immense, while at the same time^

: on the opposite side of the mountains, the rarified strata of the atmos-

' phere vibrate over the dry and burning hot surface of the llanos as

! over a heated furnace.

I The phenomena which the different strata of air under such cir-
j cumstances must exhibit would, I think, form a worthy and highly
; interesting subject of study for the meteorologist, and tend to advance
' the cause of his science. Happy he who has the means and the mind
j to do so !

i In connection with the foregoing, I will mention only one phenom-
i enon, near the lake of Valencia, which may show some of the effects
: of evaporation with regard to its disturbance of the atmosphere.

As otten as I have visited Valencia in the dry season I have ob-
served a violent northerly wind, amounting sometimes to a very stiff
breeze, blowing there late in the afternoon till 10 or 11 o'clock at
night. I found this same wind also in other parts of the valley of
Aragua near the lake of Valencia, as, for instance, in Cagua and San
Jose.
I By inquiry I learned that this is a regular wind, commencing and
i; ending with the dry season, returning every year as regularly as the
I season itself; that it rises every afternoon, continues till late at night,
: and is very annoying to the inhabitants by the dust it raises.
[ By reterring to Humboldt's Travels I find the following sentence^
} where he speaks about the site of the town of Valencia: " liut there
1 is an opening on the meridian of Nueva Valencia, which leads towards
the coast, and by which a cooling sea breeze penetrates every evening

228 METEOROLOGY.

into the valleys of Aragua. This breeze rises regularly two or three
hours after sunset."

Now, here we see that this phenomenon was as regularly exhibited
fifty-seven years ago as it is now, and no doubt has been going on
from time immemorial. The same causes that were then at work are
still at work as forcibly as ever. While at Valencia the slapping of
the doors, the columns of dust that came sweeping by, and other |
signs of a violent rush of wind indicated to me with unfailing cer- .|
tamty that it was after 3 or 4 p. m. Travellers and muleteers, in ij
going from Valencia to Puerto Cabello, are especially annoyed on the i\
first six miles of their road by the dust, so that they have to cover •
their faces or shut their eyes most of the time.

It was natural for me to reflect upon the probable cause of this phe- •
nomenon, and a circumstance soon presented itself to help me towards i
the solution of this problem.

For on the 11th of March the sky was densely clouded, all day, over ■
Valencia, and the whole valley of Aragua, including the lake, and it
looked as if it was going to rain. In the evening, the usual regular •
wind failed to make its appearance altogether.

To account for the alternating daily land and sea breezes of the ;
coasts in general, there exists a well-known explanation, based upon
the rarefaction of the air by the heated surface of the land or water.
This explanation, however, will not do in the above case ; for at Va-
lencia the wind begins to blow from the seaside not in the niorning,
when the land becomes heated, but, on the contrary, in the afternoon
when the land begins to cool again.

When in equatorial regions the direct rays of the sun act for some '
time upon a widely spread mass of water, surrounded by land, as, for
instance, a lake, they evaporate powerfully the water from its surface ;
that is, they convert a liquid into an aeriform fluid. In this latter
state the water requires several hundred times more room and exerts a
certain pressure which added to the pressure of the atmosphere,* with
which this vapor is mixed, overpowers the surrounding dryer atmos-
phere, and spreads or shoves the latter outward in nil directions to )
make room for itself. In such an atmosphere, saturated with invisible :
vapor, its permanent gases are much more attenuated than when im
a dry state ; but they nevertheless exert, by the aid of the invisible ■
vapor, an overwhelming outward pressure.

That amount of pressure, however, which tlie vapor exerts, can be
easily annihilated by condensation, and thereby a partial vacuum be
produced, into which the external air will strive to rush with great I

force.

Now, in the surrounding bottom lands of the lake, the air loses
towards evening, in the dry season, by radiation against an unclouded I
sky, more caloric than it receives.

It therefore seems highly probable, that the gradual decrease of'
temperature, by which the vapors of the air above the lake of Valencia
lose part of their tension, is the cause of the r egular breeze which

* Accordino- to the great fundamental principle, that in any given space, the power of ten-
sion of two or more mixed aeritorm bodies is equal to the sum of all those tensions which
each of these aerial bodies would exert, if it was to occupy the whole space by itselt.

METEOROLOGY. 229

blows as long as the temperature of the air falls : that is, till 10 or 11
o'clock at night. It is easy to imagine what a hurricane would blow
if the cooling and condensing of the vapors were to be very sudden.
What interesting barometrical and other observations could be made
in the neighborhood of this lake!

Very frequently at night or evening, throughout the rainy season,
we may observe, at Colonia Tovar, favored by the absence of daylight,
flashes of lightning unaccompanied by any audible noise of thunder.
This noiseless discharge of electricity shows itself also frequently in
the daytime ; but of all the many discharges of lightning during a
three and a half years' residence I have heard only once or twice
thunder loud enough to be compared with those of the United
States.

230

METEOROLOGY.

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METEOROLOGY. 263

Caracas, July 16, 1858.

Under date of January 10- I sent you my meteorological registers
for Colonia Tovar, for seven months ending with the last day of De-
cember, 1857, besides some other observations on the meteorology of
that region.

The inclosed registers, which I send you this time, extend from the
1st of January to the 5th of June, 1858, for Colonia Tovar, and from
the 16th to the 30th of June for Caracas.

On the 6th of June, after having sold my little property, I left
Colonia Tovar, the place where I had lived for more than four years,
and moved to Caracas. I am very sorry to say that on this journey,
in endeavoring to measure some of the highest points of the difficult
and dangerous mountain road, the barometer was accidentally broken,
and hence the barometrical observations end with the 5th of June.

In February last I attempted to make a complete set of half-Jiourly
barometrical observations, but after proceeding with this task for
seven days I was compelled to leave off for want of time. The pres-
sure of business at present also prevents me from sending anything
more on meteorology this time.

A. FENDLEP

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' THE CUMATE OF SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA, BY THOMAS M. LOGAN, M. D.
Latitude SS'i 3i' 41" N, Longitude 12 1° 27' 44" W.

As supplementary to the abstract of meteorological observations for
il8o3, 1854, and 1855, published in the reports of the Smithsonian
Institution, the accompanying tables for 1856-'57, together with the
results of the aggregate five years, have been prepared.

It may not meet the exactions of a rigid science to deduce a positive
view of the climate from a series of observations extending through
only five years, still an approximation may now be arrived at that
"will be sufficiently near to afford a very just appreciation of some of
the climatic features of this portion of the great valley of the Sacra-
mento, due allowance being made for irregularities and disturbing
causes. Owing chiefly to the difficulty of procuring reliable instru-
ments and proper tables and instructions, the records, which were
made in various forms and with differing calculations, required re-
arrangement and tabulation to render them comparable with each
other. These considerations will be a sufficient apology with those
who have much experience in arranging statistical tables for a certain
amount of inaccuracy which has crept into our former publications.
In the present instance we have used every possible precaution while
rectifying former errors,* which are herewith specified, that the advan-
tages already received may be rendered more valuable hereafter.

BAROMETER.

The series of barometric observations have not been, in one respect,
continuous. Had they been conducted with one and the same instru-
ment doubtless some valuable deductions might have been gathered
from their analysis ; as it is we can only note some of the most obvious
■ results. During 1853 the'ordinary ship barometer, (the only one to
be had then,) which was used, appears to have ranged entirely too
|low. The readings from this instrument, as well as those which were
registered from a common open cistern, and a siphon of Gay Lussac,

• Errata in former ptiblications. — The latitude and longitude of Sacramento are correctly

given above, and are erroneous in the previous reports.

1853.— Car. Mean for January, for 29.65 read 29.75 ; annual mean, for 30.01 read 30.02

inches Therm. Mean maximum, for 800.40 read 800.04; mean minimum, for 49O.00 read

490.08; mean for October, for 780.00 read 730.00. Winds. SE., total, for 101 read 111.
. 1854.— Bor. Mean of January, for 29.11 read 30.11; minimum of May, for 29.00 read
f!29.60; mean minimum, for 29.76 read 29.81; annual mean, for 29.98 read 30.07 inches.
' Therm. Mean maximum, for 790.54 read 790.29; mean minimum, for 420.72 read 42.73

Rainy days. March, for 9 read 4. Inches of rain, for 8.25 read 3.25. Annual total of clear

days, for 223 read 228. Total rainy days, for 60 read 55.
' 1855. — Bar. Maximum of July, for 29.85 read 30.15; mean maximum, for 30.09 read 30.14

inches. Dew point. Annual mean, for 470. 52 read 460. 69.

284 METEOROLOGY,

were never corrected for temperature. During 1856 and 1857 Green's
Smithsonian barometer was employed, and its readings reduced to 32°
Fahrenheit. No correction for altitude was ever made, as the cisterns
of the various instruments employed were at so small an elevation
above the level of the sea. Neither was the elastic force of vapor
applied at the time of the record. This force has been calculated only
during the past year, according to the rules established by Regnault
for deriving every degree of it exhibited in the atmosphere from the
readings of the wet and dry-bulb thermometers. It will be seen that
it increases directly with the temperature, and amounted during 1857
to nearly half an inch during midsummer, or one sixty-seventh of the
entire atmospheric weight.

The absence of either abrupt or great changes gives indication of
the tropical feature which the climate possesses. As a general rule
the atmospheric pressure varies but little, and that through slow and
long continued movements, rather than in the sudden manner charac-
teristic of the latitude on the Atlantic coast and elsewhere. Never-
theless, although the mercurial column rises and falls within very
restricted limits, yet there are changes, represented it is true by small
measurements, which occur with wonderful regularity and certainty,
diurnal movements at fixed hours, as well as annual ones, having
reference to the position of the sun in the ecliptic. The former, or
horary oscillations, as revealed on the chart of diurnal barometrical
curves, present, in a marked degree, the two diurnal maxima and
minima observed within the tropics; the ante-meridian maximum, at
about 9 to 10 a. m., being more constant than that at the same period
post meridian. Without a single exception the pressure is always
less at 3 p. m., and this has no reference to whether the column stands
high, as in the cold, or low, as in the hot season.

The following table, calculated from the horary observations, taken
once a month during 1857, gives the mean successive hourly range for
the year. The signs -|- and — denote the range of each hour above
or below the mean of the twenty-four hours.

METEOROLOGY.

285

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286

METEOROLOGY.

The mean successive daily range frequently, in summer, does not
amount to more than the ninety-four thousandth part of an inch. The
following calculation from the readings of the Smithsonian barometer
during the last two years substantiates, this fact.

Barometer.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

Mean, ISfiB

.130

.114

.116

.114

.056

.091

.066

.070

.078

.088

.103

.160

099

Mean, 1857

.110

.126

.101

.071

.109

.062

.046

.059

.057

.075

.110

.143

089

Mean for 2 years

.120

.120

.109

.093

.083

.097

.056

.065

.068

.082

.107

.152 .094

The mean difference of the successive months above or below the
annual average of the five years, as can readily be calculated from the
data furnished^ does not amount to more than one-sixteenth of an
iuch. Between the highest mean mensual mean and the lowest a
fraction over one-fifth of an inch is found. The extreme ranges
observed during the month are also limited, as may be seen in the sub-
joined table for 1857, wherein is also revealed the annual tide shown
in the chart of curves ; gradually descending as the sun approaches the
northern tropic, and ascending as he returns towards the southern.*

January 0.633

February 0.713

March 0.571

April 0.427

May -. 0.433

June 0.404

July 0.349

August 0.401

September 0.411

October 0.526

November 0.590

December 0.641

The extreme annual ranges are also small. During 1853 the maxi-
mum height of the barometer occurred in November and December,
and read 28.980, giving the difference as the extreme annual range of
1.460 inch. This, however, is the result of an extreme minimum,
never before nor since observed. A more reliable and the next lowest
minimum was 29.380 inches, observed with G-ay Lussac's siphon ba-
rometer on the morning, 1st January, 1855, before daylight, during
a strong gale from the SE. The greatest mensual range was also
observed in the same month, the maximum for the year having
reached 30.410 inches in the same month, and giving a difierence of
1.030 inch for the month as well as for the year The lowest read-
ing for the same year was 29.569 inches on the 19th September. The
extreme annual range was therefore 1.050 inch. These instances of
extreme range are very rare, and must be regarded as exceptional.
The extreme range for 1854 was only 0.850, and that of 1857 but
0.783 inch. During the rainy season northerly winds always deter-
mine the greatest elevation, and southerly the greatest depression of
the mercurial column. This rule is not so constant during the dry
season.

* The mean for July of the series is higher than that of June, in consequence of some
peculiar disturbing causes in June, 1853, which year should be regarded as exceptional, and
which may in part be attributable to a defective instrument.

METEOROLOGY.

287

The mean annual atmospheric pressure is put down at 30.006
nches. This has been obtained from the mensual means derived from
he three daily readings. The diurnal mean calculated from the
lourly observations presents ^he following differences, which, if ap-
)lied^ would give the absolute mean for each month.

Date.

BAROMETEH.

Daily mean.

Hourly mean.

Difference.

1857.
January 22

30.233
30.018
30. 139
29. 948
30. 007
29.889
29. 856
29. 905

29. 922
29.986
30.225

30. 155

30. 237
29.976
30. 172
29.932
30. 031
29.879
29. 855
29.927
29.908
29.969
30. 203
30. 120

+0. 004
01''

February 23

March 23

+0. 033
016

April 29

May 22

+0. 024
010

June 22

July 22

001

August 28

+0.022
— 0. 014

September 23

October 21

— 0. 017

November 27

—0. 022

December 23..^

— 0. 035

Mean difference .......

0. 020

It will be observed, on referring to the diurnal as well as annual
curves, that while each curve varies there is still, due allowance being
made for disturbing causes, a very apparent similarity, the evidence
of some regular moving influence, going and coming, present at one
season, absent at another, and returning again, and so on. These
phenomena bear the closest analogy with those observed at Algiers,
Oran, and other localities on the southern shores of the Mediterranean,
as established by A. Mitchell, A. M., M. D.*

THERMOMETER.

Like the barometer the thermometer reveals also some features of a
tropical rather than the temperate climate, to which latitudinally Sac-
ramento appertains. The mean monthly and annual temperatures,
as seen in the accompanying tables, are calculated, like those of the
barometer, from the daily observations made at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and
9 p. m. This arithmetical mean is found to differ occasionally from
that obtained from the thermometrograph during the last two years.
The minimum temperature, as seen from the curves projected in the
chart of hourly observations, occurs between 4 and 5 a. m., and the
maximum about 3 p. m. Consequently the mean deduced from the
latter is generally minus that of the former. The following table
gives the correction to be applied in order to obtain the absolute mean:

* British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, No. xxxiii, 1856.

288

METEOROLOGY.

Date.

1857.

January 22

February 23

March 23

April 29

May 22 i

June 22

July 22

August 28

September 23 ...

October 21

November 27

December 23 . ..

Sum .
Mean

TIIERMOMETEB.

Daily mean.

48.00
54.00
52.00
62.66

63. 66
70.66
77.00
66.33

64. 00
59.00
52.66
43.33

FTourly mean.

48.50
53.75
50.38
61.88
62. 46
69.83
75.23
65.21
64.08
58.50
53.58
43.50

Difference.

+0.50
—0.25
—1.62
—0.78
—1.20
—0. 83
— 1.77
—1. 12
+0.08
—0.50
+0.92
+0. 17

9.74

0.81

As this correction is deduced from the difference between the obser-
vations of a single isolated day in each month of the year, due caution
and allowance for variation of seasons and other disturbing causes
must be exercised. For this reason we have not applied the correction
to our tables, but purpose prosecuting the series of hourly observa-
tions ; and with a view to uniformity hereafter will adopt the term
days, commencing at 10 p. m.s mean time, Gottingen, on the Friday
preceding the last Saturdays of February, May, August, and Novem-
ber, and on the Wednesdays nearest the 21st of each of the other
months. Another and most important object in this connexion will
be the determination of the hours of mean temperature. As will be
seen in the table subjoined, the measures of the critical interval are so
from corresponding with the quantity obtained in all other localities,
and which are generally so near as to amount almost to a constant,
that the two times of the day at which the mean temperature occurs
can only be regarded as approximative. January aifords a solitary
instance of the daily mean temperature occurring after midnight,
viz: \1h. 30m. p. m.

METEOROLOGY.

289

Table of the Hours of Mean Temperature and the ^^ critical interval"

between those hours.

Date.

1857.

January 22

February 23

March 22

April 29

May 22

June 22

July 22

August 28

Septemlier 23

October 21

Novemlxr 27

Decerabt-r 23

Mean.

Daily mean.

4S. 50
53. 75
50.38
Gl 88
62.46
69.83
75.63
05. 21
64. OS
58.50
53.58
43.50

Morning hour.

30

10 45

8 41

9 53
7 30

7 33

8 54

7 36

8 42

9 38
10 47
10 45

Evening hour. Critical intervaL

It. m.
12 30
10 15
9 19
9 7
8 16
6
41
47

12
9

8

8

8

9 55

9 15

35
30

k.

m.

13

00

11

30

12

38

11

14

12

46

12

33

11

47

13

11

13

13

11

37

13

48

10 46

12 20

One of the most striking features of tlie climate, seen on the accom-
panying chart of diurnal variations, is the greatest reduction of tem-
perature after the hour of maximum elevation. Howsoever high the
wave of temperature towers up under the influence of a vertical sun
and cloudless sky, it sinks proportionately low during the night,
rendering it conl and chilly. As an instance of the reliability and
freedom from exaggeration of the curves of temperature in this respect,
we would remark that the record of the thermometrograph for July,
1857, reveals a range of 41 degrees, and a mean daily range of 18.68'.
degrees, while the chart of diurnal observations describes a curve of.
only 24 degree-. The following table exhibits the successive hourly
ranges during one day of each month in the year.

19 s

290

METEOROLOGY

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METEOROLOGY.

291

The mean daily range for eacli month is exhibited in the subjoined
table, which embodies the two last years' observations with the ther-
mometrograph.

For 1856-'57.

(U

^

1 n

fl

3

3

s*

<

to

£ o

Mean of all highest readings by day
Mean of all lowost readings by night
Mean daily mensual range

57.38

13.66

63.5668.22 71.30

1

1
47.9150.01

15.65il8.21jl7.95

79,20

78.95 81.03

53.35

58.88^58.8864.69
20.3222.0716.34

78.99 57.75

55.45 49.86

I

23.54:17.

59.41

67.29

16.96

Dividing the year into its meteorological seasons, the mean daily
,nge will be as follows :

Spring, (February, March and April) 15°. 84

Summer, (May, June, July, August, and September) 19°. 64

Autumn, (October and November) 16°. 83

"Winter, (December and January) 12°. 18

Reverting to the table of monthly and annual means we find the
respective mean temperature of the seasons to be as follows : For the
spring months, mean 55°. 31, the mean maximum being 71°. 20, and the
mean minimum 42°. 13 ; for the summer, mean 70°. 19, and the mean
maxima and minima 92°. 50 and 55°. 11, respectively ; for the autumn,
mean 58°. 47, and mean maxima and minima 78°. 20 and 44.°00, re-
spectively ; in the two winter months the mean is 45°. 94, the mean
maxima 0°.90j and the mean minima 29°. 70

Thus it is demonstrated that there is a mean difference between
winter and spring of 9°, 35 ; between spring and summer of 14°. 88 ;
between summer and autumn of 11°. 72 ; and between autumn and
winter of 12°. 53. The difference of the means of the hottest and
coldest months between summer and winter is also shown to be
24°. 25, and the extreme variation_, or the difference between the mean
maxima of the former and the mean minima of the latter, 41°. 50.

It will be noticed that in our division of the seasons we have, in
accordance with the phenomena observed, defined February as the
first of the three spring months, and appropriated five months to
summer, and only two to autumn, and two to winter. Indeed, the
dormant season is of so short duration that the tropical division into
the wet and dry seasons would perhaps be more appropriate. The
whole period of sensible winter is far from being a complete season of
suspension of vegetation. During the period we have assigned to it
many forms of vegetable life are still active ; particularly the roots of
grasses and winter grains. The lowest mean daily temperature
belonging to this period is seldom below 40°. Although the ther-
mometer has been known to fall as low as 33° as late as the 10th of
February, still the leafing process generally commences during the
first week of February and is completed at a temperature not much

292 METEOEOLOGY.

exceeding that of the mean annual. Sometimes a greater degree of
cold is experienced in March than in February, and at other times
spring is as well advanced in March as at other seasons it is in May.
In 1855 the mean temperature of May was 3° lower than that of
April, 1857, notwithstanding, the distribution of heat for the three
months of spring is marked by no great variability in successive years,
nor great constant diiferences of the mouths. The measure ol' heat
increases very gradually from month to month. Indeed, the same
uniformity of temperature is found to obtain throughout all the
meteorological seasons. In summer the greatest vicissitudes of tem-
perature are found to occur, as is readily seen in the subjoined table
for 1856 and 1857. The commencement of autumn is quite similar
to the beginning of spring in its mean of daily temperature. The
earth remaining warmer than the atmosphere under the decline of
temperature, activity is partially renewed after the drought of summer
by the influence of the light early showers of October. The first frosts
occur about the middle of November, and the decline into winter is
prolonged until the latter part of December. Ice is seldom formed
before the beginning of January, and then rarely remains unthawed
for 24 consecutive hours. As a physical constant it is a matter of
some difficulty to place within 5° of different latitudes isothermal
lines for the seasons. That of 60° for the spring, designed for the
United States Army Meteorological Register, which connects Sacramento
with Beaufort, North Carolina, on the Atlantic coast^ and San Diego,
on the Pacific, curves 5° 52' latitude to the south on arriving at
the latter point. A corresponding divergence to the north occurs
during the winter. The isochimenal line of 45°, which is common to
Beaufort, North Carolina, and Sacramento, describes a northerly curve
of 8° 03' latitude before reaching the Pacific at Port Orford, Oregon,
latitude 42° 44'; the mean annual temperature of which place is only
53° 6'. The isotheral of 70°, starting from latitude 40° on the
Atlantic side, comes out on the Pacific coast on the parallel of 30°.
The great curvature to the south on the Pacific coast during spring
and summer demonstrates one of the peculiarities of the distribution
of heat in this region. For the mean of the three months of spring
the sea temperature which predominates on the line of coast westward
of the coast range of mountains is strikingly uniform, and shows but
little, if any, advance on that of winter. Indeed, the same may be
said of the summer months. For some hundreds of miles on the 40th
parallel there is very little difference in the sea temperature for the
entire year, and the cold of the Pacific in summer extends, according ,
to the Army Register, from the 50th to the 30th parallel. Thus
while the extremes of summer heat are common to the whole valley
of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, the mean summer temperature
of San Francisco is only 60°, and there is only one day recorded I
among the observations of Dr. Henry Gibbons when the temperature
rose above 79° during the summer months.

METEOROLOGY.

293

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294 METEOROLOGY.

Hygrometry , Wind, Hail, Snow, Electrical and other Phenomena.

An examination of the results of the psychrometer will reveal the
peculiar state of the atmosphere during the summer months. So great
is the apparent aridity at times that the lower asrial strata are fre-
quently found to contain during the hottest part of the day not more
than 15 to 20 per centage of their capacity for moisture. As an iso-
lated and extreme case, on the 10th July, 1856, at 2 p. m., wind
N. and light, and temperature 100°, the dew-point was found at
22°. This, we believe, is the greatest dryness that has yet been ob-
served on the surface of the globe on low lands. Humboldt, in his
Cosmos, states that the greatest dryness he has observed was in the
steppe of Platowskaja, after a SW. wind had blown for a long time
from the interior of the continent. With a temperature of 74°. 07 he
found the dew-point at 24°, the air containing yVo^^^s of aqueous
vapor. The principal agent in this hygrometric peculiarity of the
climate is to be found in the direct effect of northerly winds. In the
winter and spring the north winds are the coldest and serve, as the
land is then cooler than the sea, on account of the distance of the sun,
to condense the moisture wafted with the atmospherical current from
the southern hemisphere, and to precipitate it in the form of rain.
During this season the southeast trades, charged to their utmost
capacity with moisture, commence descending as their temperature
decreases, and precipitate more and more rain as they become chilled
by the north winds. During the summer, owing to the fact of these
northerly winds passing over a highly heated and arid surface, their
temperature is raised, thereby increasing their capacity for moisture,
which not being able to obtain from the surface passed over, they
appear as dry winds, reminding one of the reputed sirocco of Italy.
Nevertheless, dry as these winds apparently are, on coming in contact
with the westerly winds chilled by the oceanic polar current along the
coast, and their temperature being again reduced, the vapor they con-
tain is rapidly condensed ; hence the heavy mists that are precipitated
during the afternoon at San Francisco and at the gaps along the coast.
In the valley, as a general rule, the direction of the wind is from
north by west to southeast. It seldom blows from the east or north-
east with any appreciable force. Doubtless the prevailing wind off
the coast, where no causes of local deflection exist, is west, as estab-
lished by Lieut. Maury. This wind, rushing into the heated valleys
through the gap at San Francisco and Benicia, reaches us at Sacra-
mento and the northern part of the valley as a southwest wind, while
at Stockton and the San Joaquin valley it is a westerly and north-
westerly wind. To this wind, together with that descending from
the slopes of the sierras, may be attributed our cool summer nights.

The influence of the winds on the temperature, as we have just seen
with respect to the hygrometric condition of the air, varies according
to the season of the year. It is during the occurrence of northerly
winds in the summer that we experience our hottest weather, which
seldom lasts long, however, before the temperature becomes equalized
by a change of wind to the southward. Upon an examination of our
daily and hourly records we find it to be a common occurrence during

METEOROLOGY. 235

the summer months for the wind to commence blowing from the north
at or shortly after the morning observation, and to remain in this
quarter until afternoon, when it would change round to the south,
freighted with moisture and invigorating freshness. It is the preva-
lence of these cool winds which temper our summer climate so delight-
fully, the greater or less predominance of which renders the mean
temperature plus or minus.

As regards the force of the wind, it is generally but slight. The
observations in this respect having been registered for the two last
years only it is impossible to make full deductions therefrom with
any degree of completeness. The following enumeration of the fre-
quency, course, and seasons of winds, during 1856 and 1857, stronger
than (3) a fresh breeze, will afford some idea of this feature of the
climate.

The whole number of times it blew with the force of four, (4,) or
what is estimated a strong wind, from the north, was 29, viz : Janu-
ary, three times ; February, five times ; March, once ; April, four
times ; June, once ; September, three times ; October, twice ; Novem-
ber, eight times ; and December, twice Eighteen times it blew from
the south with the force of four, (4,) viz : January, once ; August,
twice ; September, four times ; October, three times ; November, four
times; and December, four times. It blew only eight times with the
force of (5) a high wind, viz : three times from the north, once
in February, once in April, and once in November ; and again five
times from the south, viz : once in January, once in October, once in
November, and twice in December. But twice does it appear in the
register to have blown a gale, (6,) and on both these occasions it was
from the southeast, in the month of November. These results, as be-
fore stated, are derived from the record of the last two years. Prior
to this no precise estimate was made of the force of the wind. The
only time it was ever observed during the whole series of five years
to blow with a force above six was on the last night of the year 1854,
or rather on the morning of the 1st of January, 1855, when a strong
gale from the southeast, attended with rain, was experienced. As a
general rule, it very rarely rains with the wind from the northern half
of the octant, which may be attributed to its coming to a warmer from
a colder region. During the last five years there have occurred only
fifteen exceptions to this rule, and the aggregate quantity that fell at
these different periods does not amount to two inches. On one occa-
sion, the 27th of December, 1855, the snow which fell at daylight,
amounting, when melted, to 0.016 inches by the rain gauge, was added
to the amount. This was the heaviest fall of snow ever experienced ;
indeed only three other instances of this phenomenon appear on our
record, and in all three the fall was very light. Hail storms are more
common. These, also, are of short duration, and are attended with
more or less disturbance of the electrical equilibrium. The breaking
up of the rainy season is the period of the most violent manifestations
of these latter phenomena. With the exception of the spring of 1857,
which was a season of drought, hail and thunder storms have invari-
ably occurred during the months of April and May, but have never
been very severe in this immediate locality. A hail storm which

296 METEOROLOGY.

occurred at a point witliin eight miles of the city, in May, 1854, is
represented to have been very violent. But we have experienced nothing
in this locality like that, proceeding from a dense nimbus, which sud-
denly arose from the southwest on the 13tli of May, 1855, and, while
discharging its watery contents, rivalled, in the vivid shocks, of its
well-charged battery, the thunder gusts of more tropical regions.

The aurora borealis has been observed only once — on the night of
the 16th of December, 1857 ; the sky being entirely clear at the time,
the wind light, from the east — the thermometer reading 44°, and the
barometer 30.321 inches, reduced for temperature. This phenomenon
first appeared in a northeast direction, in the form of a diffused light
defined by an arch below. From this arch, of about 15° radii above
the horizon, the light extended in width apparently 10° above Alioth,
in the constellation of the Great Bear, and gradually spread over the
whole northern section of the heavens, the dominant hue being deep
rose. Its aspect, however, was frequently changed by the successive
appearance and shifting of streaks or columns of white light, which
seemed to be more conspicuous at either extremity of the arch. With
the exception of a somewhat similar phenomenon seen once at Sonora,
Tuolumne county, during the winter of 1852-'53, we have heard of
no other instance of the aurora being seen in California.

Before proceeding to a consideration of the rains we would, in this
connexion, briefly refer to the transparency of the atmosphere for which
California has been noted. The relative frequency of clear and cloudy
days in summer and winter, as appears in the tables, although sub-
stantially correct, does not convey a just idea of the clearness of the
sky. The results are calculated from three daily observations; and if
it so happens that at either of these the least cloudiness is visible it
is recorded as a cloudy day, without regard to quantity. Now, one of
the peculiarities of the summer climate is, that if there be any cloud-
iness during the day, which is rarely the case, it is almost invariably
clear at night. Indeed, on this account, perhaps there is no region
better adapted to astronomical purposes ; for, as Sir David Brewster
expressed his wish^ " no clouds disturb the serenity of the firmament,
and no changes of temperature distract the emanations of the stars."
As to the quantity of cloudiness, this not having been estimated pre-
viously to the last two years, of course the results in this respect can-
not be regarded but as approximative to a constant, the number of
cloudy days having been in excess during 1856 and 1857.

RIVER, RAINS, ETC.

The rise and fall of the river at Sacramento is graduated by the
terms high and low- water mark, or zero. A solid column, surmounted
with a wind -vane, was set up by the city near the river bank in Sep-
tember, 1856, when the river had attained the lowest stage ever
known. The fig. 2 in the accompanying hydrographic scale agrees
with the zero in our published observations up to that date. The
mean depth of the channel of the river in this neighborhood is 16 feet
below low-water mark, and the width of the river is about 300 yards.
There is a tidal rise and fall of about one to two feet at Sacramento,

METEOROLOGY. 297

according to the course and force of the wind and the stage of the
river. If the wind blows strongly from the north this fall is still
greater, especially during spring tides. The stage of the water is
also aftected by the temperature, as well as by the fall of rain. The
months of November, December, January, February, March, and
April constitute the "rainy season," although more or less rain
generally falls during October and May. The first and generally the
greatest rise in the river occurs about the 1st of January, after the
early rains. The warmer these rains are the less snow falls in the
mountains, and consequently the more sudden is the rise of the river.
From the middle of January to the middle of February there is gene-
rally a marked abatement, and sometimes a complete suspension of
rain, and the river declines correspondingly. From the middle of
February to the last of April the latter or warmer rains set in, and
cause a second or spring rise, which is kept up in accordance with the
prevailing temperature. If the spring and early summer have been
cold, the spring freshet soon passes off, and the river maintains a
high level, as it did in 1857, in consequence of the gradual melting
of the snow at its sources ; and the converse obtaining if the hot
weather sets in early. Recurring to the hydrographic scale, we would
observe that the figures to the left indicate, when applied to the river,
the number of feet from zero or extreme low-water mark at spring
tide to the highest point the Siicramento has yet been known to rise,
viz : nearly 22 feet, in January, 1852. The curves for all the years
are not complete,, our notes not being full and regular. The same
scale of feet, if read for inches, when applied to the perpendicular
lines, will denote at a glance, and which is most important in this
connexion, the monthly quantity of rain that fell at Sacramento during
the last five years — the rain for 1853-'54 being placed in the first
column of each month, of 1855 in the second, and of 1856-'57 in the
third. The scale to the right represents inches, and is intended to
show the comparative annual fall of rain since the year 1852. As
will readily be seen, the rains during 1856-'57 have been so much
below the average that they should be regarded as exceptional.
Averaging the rains of 1852-'53-'54-'55, we find an annual fall
of 21,352 inches ; whereas the average of the last five years gives only
17.113 inches. In the rain chart of the Army Meteorological Regis-
ter, Sacramento is included with San Francisco in the area of 22 inches
of rain ; and Dr. Gibbons puts down the mean annual rain of the
latter place at 21.17 inches. This corresponds with our estimate of
the amount for Sacramento, and rather strengthens the opinion just
expressed, that the years 1856-'57 should be regarded as exceptional.
Although the river is, of course, but slightly affected by the amount
of rain that falls in this immediate vicinity, nevertheless the con-
nexion here preserved is of much interest, inasmuch as experience
shows that the amount of rain that falls at Sacramento bears a quan-
titative proportion to that which is precipitated in the higher parts of
the valley, as well as in the mc untains. Certainly, the river never has
attained a high stage when there has occurred a deficit of rain at
Sacramento. To substantiate these assertions the following facts,
condensed from our publications in the California State Medical

298 METEOROLOGY.

Journal, will suffice. As therein stated the winter and spring of
1849-'50 was a season of continual outpourings. The first settlers
tell us that the rain came down in torrents, and that tubs and casks
left out at night were found full and overflowing next morning. This
must, of course, be taken cum grano salis. There were no ombro-
meters in those mythical days, when the rain appears to have been as
abundant as the gold. Doubtless the rains were copious ; certainly
they set in earlier than they have ever done since. " The first rain
of 1849 took place on the 23d of September. Through the month of
October they became much more severe and cold, and, as no adequate
preparation had been made for protection against this element, the
sufferings of the immigrants were consequently aggravated." *

* * '^' Through the latter part of December and beginning
of January, 1850, the rains were so heavy that serious apprehensions
began to be entertained, for the first time, of an inundation." *

* * "By Christmas the water was over the lower portions
of the city ; on the 8th of January, 1850, it rose rapidly ; and on the
10th, and for several days after, there was no dry land in town, except
the knoll at the public square." * * * " In a few days
the waters subsided, the sun broke from its cloudy confines and shone
bright and beautiful again. This weather continued until the heavy
rains of the following March." * * * '-On the 7th of
April the waters began again to run into the town, and on the 8th
the council voted an appropriation of money for constructing a tem-
porary levee, which was made, and the principal business portion of
the city saved from an overflow." — (History of the City.) The open-
ing half of the winter of 1850-'51, when commence our own observa-
tions, was rainless, and consequently the river remained at low -water
mark until January, 1851, during which month about three-fourths of
an inch of rain fell, and a corresponding rise in the river occurred.
From this period the river remained very low until April 5, when it
attained, although by no means a high level, still a greater elevation
than at any prior date of the season, and navigation continued open
to most of the upper trading points on the Sacramento, as well as to
Marysville, until the summer. The rains that fell during this inter-
val amounted to about 4 inches.

The rainy season of 1851-'52 commenced early, and the river rose
correspondingly. By the 30th December it was up to within 4 feet of
its natural banks, in consequence of the heavy rains which fell up to
that date, amounting in the aggregate, during September, October,
November, and December, to about 10 inches ; thus compensating, in
a measure, for the deficit of the previous season. The rain of the year
1852 was well distributed among all the months of the wet season,
and amounted in the aggregate to about 27 inches. The heaviest rains
occurred in March and December, and consequently the city was over-
flowed both these months, the levee not proving adequate. The first
of these inundations occurred on the 7th March, owing to the washing
away of the embankment at the flood-gate in the levee at Sutter lake,
as well as to a crevasse on the American river ; and for one week
nearly the whole city remained submerged. The rains which followed
after the great fire of November, 1852, were the heaviest known for

METEOROLOGY. 299

• that season of the year of which we have any positive record. About
i 12 inches fell in December. Accordingly the river rose 17 inches
! higher than in the flood of 1850. From the 25th December to the
I 24th January, 1853, when the waters began to retire, the city re-

• mained almost entirely submerged. During the following March the
! fall of rain amounted to 7 inches, and again a corresponding rise of

the river occurred. On the 29th it rose 12 feet in twenty-four hours,

'. and soon reached above the original banks ; and, backing up from a

I break in the levee at Sutterville, the greater part of the city was

I again overflowed by the 2d April, and thus remained more or less

t deluged until the rains subsided towards the last of May. The

amount of rain that fell during the latter month was nearly 1^ inch,

and the aggregate for January, February, March, April, and May,

and which kept up the river at so high a level, was about 17 inches.

From the period to which we have thus brought down our account
of the freshets of the Sacramento river and the corresponding rains,
up to the present time, (1st January, 1858,) there has been no ex-
traordinary rise to record, as may readily be seen by a glance at the
hydrographic scale. As may also be there seen, the rains during the
same interval have been considerably below the average.

300

METEOROLOGY.

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302 METEOEOLOGY.

GENERAL REMARKS. '^

a

The foregoing table for 1856 is the result of three daily observa-
tions, made at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and 9 p. m., with the instruments
and instructions recommended by the Smithsonian Institution, The
readings of the barometer have been reduced to the temperature of
32^ Fahrenheit, but not to sea level. The height of the lower sur-
face of the mercury is 41 feet above the mean level of the sea at San
Francisco. The rainy days are included in the cloudy and foggy
days, and are also put separately to show the number of these days
on which rain fell every month. Professor Coffin's psychrometrical
table for determining the elastic force of aqueous vapor and the rela-
tive humidity of the atmosphere will be used in our register hereafter,
and the dew-point column omitted. The following corrections of '
errata are to be applied to our tables for 1853-'54, published in the
Smithsonian Report for 1855 : Barometer mean for September, 1853,
30.00, and mean mean 30.02 inches ; mean of barometer for January,
1854, 30.11 inches.

MONTHLY REMARKS.

January. — The means of the barometer and thermometer were above
the average of the three preceding years, the former by 0.254 inch,
and the latter by 3.59 degrees. The rainy days exceeded the average ■
to the number of seven. There were five days of more or less fog.
The quantity of rain was plus the average 1.460 inch. A sprinkle ■
of snow, just enough to be perceptible, occurred on the 8th at 9 a. m.
On the 3d frost remained all day unthawed in the shade.

February, — There was little variation in the atmospheric pressure
from that of previous years. The mean temperature was plus the
average by 1.14 degree. Spring opened early. On the 7th the wil-
low (Salix) flowered. On the 13th the buttercup^ and on the 16th
the wild violet were also in blossom. The rain fell short of the
average by 1.460 inch.

March. — The temperature exceeded the average still more this
month, being plus 3.12 degrees. Spring progressed rapidly. On the
Ist the peach was in full blossom, and on the 10th was leafed out.
Although the deficit of rain for the month amounted to 2.560 inches,
frequent showers, accompanied on the 29th by lightning and thunder,
tempered, in this locality, the effects of the drought which prevailed I
generally throughout the State.

April. — There was very little variation in the readings of the
barometer and thermometer from that of previous years. Seasonable
rains invigorated vegetation, and although nothing like the deficiency '
was made up, still the Sacramento river remained comparatively high
for the season, in consequence of the warm rains melting the snow.
Its temperature averaged about 54*^, being four degrees lower than
that of well water. The last frost of the season occurred on the 29th.
The barn swallow made its first appearance on the 1st, and toward
the latter part of the month wild geese were observed wending their

METEOEOLOGY: 303

way northwardly. At the last of the month salmon and sturgeon
began to ascend the river in considerable numbers.

May. — The average readings of the barometer and thermometer
did not vary much from those of the four preceding Mays. The pro-
longation of the wet season to the last of the month somewhat com-
pensated for the deficiency of the semestral fall of rain, which was
reduced down to 6.263 inches. On the evenings of the 6th, 8th, and
9th sheet lightning in the northern horizon revealed the time of
occurrence of terrific hail storms at various points at these respective
dates. Tiiat which occurred at Butte creek^ Shasta county, was
accompanied by a gale, the belt of which was not over half a mile in
width, and the extent of ground on which the largest sized hail fell
two miles. These hailstones were about the size of carbine balls, of
a nucleus of ice surrounded by snow, apparently. On the 21st snow
fell lower down on the foot hills than at any previous time during the
winter. The temperature of the river still remained 4 degrees lower
than that of well water, the current running at the rate of four miles
an hour.

June. — Throughout the whole month the weather was very variable.
Instead of the close, sultry atmosphere that usually obtains as the
sun enters the calm belt of Cancer, strong, chilly winds, varying from
SSW. to WNW., just at the period of the summer solstice, pre-
vailed, freighted with moisture from the ocean. As the land, how-
ever, had already attained a high degree of temperature, of course it
could not condense the vapors of water held by the air ; consequently
no rain fell after the 1st, when 0.033 inch are now chronicled as the
last for this extraordinary season. The total amount, therefore, of
rain for the season of 1855-'56, at Sacramento, was minus the average
4.264 inches The river continued to fall steadily. Its temperature
on the 2l8t was 4 degrees higher than that of well water 12 feet
below the surface, which fact showed that the great bulk of the
melted snow from the mountains had passed off.

July. — Notwithstanding the cloudless sky which characterized
nearly this whole month, the tempering of the atmosphere by fresh
southerly breezes was more obvious to one's feelings than by the ther-
mometer, the mean of which was only 0.60 minus the average of the
three preceding Julys. During the few days that northwardly winds
predominated the heat became intense. An important meteorological
fact connected with this unpleasant wind is that all the moisture has
been wrung out of it that a dew-point of zero in the cold latitudes
could extract. It is, indeed, a return wind, which, after blowing over
the surface fresh from the ocean, grows colder as it goes north, where
the process of condensation commences, and when it comes back it is
as parching and obnoxious to animal and vegetable life as the simoon
of the eastern deserts. The river reached a very low stage this month,
and its temperature at 12 feet below the surface read 75*^;, while well
water at the same depth was 66^.

August. — This last of the summer months closed after a remark-
ably cool summer . The whole number of days of extreme heat, in which
the thermometer reached 90° and upward, amounted to only 11 for
the summer, viz : two in June, six in July, and three in August. On

304 METEOKOLOGY.

the 26tli the temperature of the earth at 53 feet below the surface
(the depth then obtained in an artesian well) was 60°, the thermometer
having fallen about a degree and a half for every 10 feet from the
depth of 15 feet, at the time of reaching which latter depth it read 66°.

September. — This month was characterized by variable weather.
The barn swallow made its last appearance on the 5th. On the 10th,
at 5^ o'clock p. m., we were suddenly visited with a high wind fromi
a heavy bank of clouds in the southwest horizon, which at one time
presented indications of approaching rain, but was intercepted by the
arid mountains and high lands of Santa Cruz, Alameda, and Sam
Francisco, where the accompanying lightning and thunder are reported'
to have been extremely violent.

For several days previous to the equinox a regular declension of
atmospheric pressure was experienced, attended with a stagnant,
sultry condition of the air. This was succeeded by a sprinkle of rain
(the first of the season in this locality) at daylight on the 20th, when
the lowest reading of the barometer, as above, was recorded. As the
sun entered Libra, however, the weatlier presented one of the most i
favorable specimens of our autumnal climate, a fresh circulation of'
air being kept up by southerly breezes.

The most remarkable feature of the month was the brilliant ?erolite(
which appeared on the evening of the 11th, at about 8 o'clock. As ■
it was seen simultaneously in an area of several hundred miles,
bounded by Red Bluffs, Iowa Hill, Stockton, San Francisco, and i
Santa Cruz, the probabilities are that at the time of its brief appear-
ance it was in the upper regions of our atmosphere, and that, judging [
from the interval that elapsed between its explosion and the reaching
of the report here, which resembled distant thunder, its distance then
was between thirty and thirty-five miles. After comparing all the
different accounts that have reached us, it would seem that its course
was on the southern side of the zenith, from SE. to NW., and that
its relative position to the point of aspect here was at first about forty
degrees above the horizon, and twenty when it vanished. When first
seen it appeared but little larger than Venus, but as it approached i
the earth it increased in size as suddenly as it diminished again just t
before bursting into brilliant corruscations of light that reflected all I
the prismatic colors. The moon was near the close of ils second I
quarter at the time, and the atmosphere clear and transparent.

The Sacramento river fell to a lower point than has ever been before ;
observed, which will be the zero of the scale of a new river gauge
about to be constructed by the city. Its present mean temperature
twelve feet below the surface reads 70°, while that of well water at
the same depth is 60°. The temperature in the artesian well at
sixty-five feet below the surface is 59^^°.

October. — The mean temperature of this month was 5°. 47 minus
the average. On the 1st the flight of wild geese southwardly, which i
had been observed since the 8th September, prepared us to expect the
rain that fell on five different days — the 7th, 15th, 17th, 19th, and
24th ; and though not amounting to much in quantity, it was sufficient
to indicate that the atmospherical changes which characterize the
rainy season had set in. The first frost occurred on the 20th, and ice

METEOROLOGY. 305

S formed on the 22d, at daylight. The effect of the rains and snows
!was sensibly demonstrated in the Sacramento river, both quanti-
'tatively and thermometrically. On the 17th, it rose suddenly ten
finches, and fell again immediately to low water mark ; its temperature
• declining 12° lower than that of the previous month. The temperature
I of well water fell to 57°. On the last day of the month the leaves of
the willow began to fall.

November. — Although the readings of the barometer were not much
I below the average, more or less stormy weather prevailed over the
greater part of the State. In the south, the setting in of the rains
was attended by disasters of a somewhat novel character. A shower
of sand swept over a portion of Los Angeles county, completely de-
stroying the grass on the pasture lands About the same period,
severe gales prevailed at Humboldt Bay. The mornings of the 27th
and 30th were unusually cold for the season. The rains of the month
did not make much impression on the river, further than a rise of
about 9 inches ; its temperature was 46°, while that of well water was
59°. The temperature of the Artesian well, at 73 feet, where it was
discontinued, stood at 58°. 50. The fall of leaf of the fig, apple, pear,
and cotton-wood tree occurred on the 1st, 5th, and 30th dates of the
month respectively.

December. — The month was rendered remarkable for the unprece-
dented })ersistence of continuous cold weather and the number of cloudy
days — much beyond the average of the three previous years. The
barometer maintained an unusually high range in consequence of the
prevalence of northerly winds. The readings of its extraordinary
maxima were made on the evening of the 19th and morning of the
20th, while the wind was fresh from the N.NW., and the temperature
ranged from 30° to 40°. Its diurnal mean fell only five times below
30 inches. The minimum was registered on the 29t.h at 9 p. m., pre-
ceding a SE. storm which was general throughout the State. On the
same day it snowed at San Francisco, and about the same period the
Coast range of mountains presented the unusual appearance of being
covered with snow. The river was not much affected by the rains of
the month ; its temperature read 41°.

20 s

306

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METEOROLOGY.

Meteorohgkal Ohsei-vations — Contioued.

309

1853-'54-'55-'56-'57.

Ist days and 2d force of N. wind . .
Do do NE. wind.

Do..
Do..
Do..
Do..
Do..
Do..

.do..

.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.

. .E. W'fid.. ,
..SE. wind.,
. .S. wind...,
..SW. wind ,
. , W. wind. ,

[!o N W. wind .

MONTHLY MEANS.

5 &-15

1 7-15

1 8-15

7

2 14-15

1 13-15

8-15

10 2-15

4 7-15
1 1-15

1 8-1 .i
6 1-15

2 4-15
2 6-15

10-15
9 n-15

3 2-15

1 2-15

1 2-15

5 10-15

3 8-15

6 6-15

1 4-15

8 11-15

3 7-

1.5

8-1.51

15-

-1.5

4 14-1.51

4 9-

-15

7 4-

-15

1 7-

-15

6 14-

-15

1 3-15

5-15

8-15

6 4-15

7 G-lo

8 9-15

13-15

5 12-15

1.4

0.8
0.2
1.9
1.9
1,8
1.6
1.8

i853-'54-'55-'56-'57.

Ist days and 2d force of N. wind...

Do. do NE. wind..

Do do E. wind...

Do do SE wind. .

Do do S. wind

Do do SW. wind.

Do do VV. wind...

Do do N\V. wind.

MONTHLY MEANS.

I

1 14-15' 1.2

5-15: 1.3

6-15 0.7

5 .?-!5 1.9
8 3-15' 2.2

6 6-15 2.0
14-15 1.5

6 9-15 1

1 6-1.5 1.2 13-15
3-15! 0.8 7-15
2-15| 1.2 5-15

9 2-1.5 2.2 12 1-15

8 1-15 2.1 7 10-15

6 11-15 2.2 7 6-15

2 6-15' l.y 9-15

2 14-15 1.51 1 10-151 1.3

2 6-15
1 1-15
10-1
7

5 2-15

6 8-15
1 4-15

1

3 1.3-15

0.7

10-15

0.8

10-15

1.6

5 5-15

2.1

2 12-15

1.6

5 5-15

1

1

2.0

11 5-15

1.3
0.9
1.2
1.7
2.1
1.7
1.3
1.6

1853-'54'-55-'56-'57.

MONTHLY MEANS.

ANNDAL MEANS.

November.

a

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ei

ci
n

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5 years.

1st days
Do

5 5-15
1 12-15

2 2-15
5 3-15
2

3 3-15
13-15

9 7-15

2.2
1.5
1.3
2.9

2.9
1 7
2.0

2.5

4 8-15
3 4-15
2

3 5-15
1 4-15

4 9-15
12-15

11 3-15

1.7
1.6
1.3
2.3
1.5
2.3
0.0
1.8

1 5
1.1
1.0
1.9
1.9
1.7
1.3
1.8

38 1 15

do NE. wind

do E. wind

. do SE wind

12 5 15

Do .

11 13-15

Do..
Do .

77 .3-15
55 13-15

Do

do SVV. wind......

66 8-15

Do..

12 10 15

Do

do NW. wind

90 7 15

Remarks — The mean mean of the barometer for July is apparently higher than that of June, in consequence
of some pnciiliar disturbing causes in June, 1853 ; which month should have been regarded as e.xceptional.
1856 beim; leap-year, of cour&e a fractional part must enter into the average of the clear and cloudy days for
February, as well as of the number of the days of the wind.

310 METEOROLOGY.

ON THE BEST HOURS OF DAILY OBSERVATION TO FII^D
THE MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE YEAR.

BY PROF. CHESTER DEWEY.

The mean temperature of a day is to be obtained, originally, from
observations of the thermometer, taken twenty-four times daily, or
double that number. The mean of daily and hourly observations of
this kind must give a close approximation to the actual mean tem-
perature. From a series of such hourly observations the two, or three^
or four hours may be selected, which will give nearly an equivalent
result.

The large Meteorological Society of Manheim, in Germany, selected
the hours of 7 a. m. and 2 and 9 p. m., but I could find no reason for
this selection in any accessible work, when I began observations in
meteorology in 1815, In 1816 and 1817 I made twenty-four hourly
observations of five days each in the different seasons ; the first of the
kind on record, so far as I know, being made for thirty days. The
mean of the 24 observations is 41°. 50 ; of 10 a. m. and 10 p. m, 41°. 45;
and of 7, 2 and 9 about one desfree higher. Coming so near the mean
I adopted those hours of the Manheim Society, for the ease of com-
parison with the results obtained by them.

The mean of observations at 6 a. m., 2 and 10 p. m., gave a close
approximation to the mean of 24 observations ; but tlie morning hour
would be too early for half the year in view of many observers.

The results of this series of observed temperature I communicated
to Secretary Calhoun, as he was about to organize the system of
meteorological observations, so successfully made by the surgeons at
the military posts of the United States since 1819. These hours were
adopted for all the posts.

The fitness of these hours, 7 a. m., 2 p. ra., and 9 p. m, for obser-
vations, is sustained by the following facts :

1. By the hourly observations for a year at Leith Fort, Scotland.
These give the mean of 24 daily observations, 41°. 50 ; of 10 a. m. and
10 p. m. very nearly the same ; and of 7, 2 and 9 about one-fourth of
a degree above the mean of the 24 observations.

2. By the hourly observations at Amherst College, Massachusetts,
through 1839, under the direction of Prof. Snell. The mean of the
24 observations is 47°. 23 ; of 10 a. m. and 10 p. m., is 47°. 16; and of
7, 2 and 9, is 47°. 88. This last, then, is two-thirds of a degree above
the 24 mean. Prof. Snell shows the mean at 6 a. m.; 2 and 10 p. m.
is nearly the same as the mean of the 24 observations.

3. By the " Girard Observations," under the direction of Prof. '
Bache, an extensive series of several years, bi-hourly and hourly.

The mean of 7, 2 and 9 is only three-tenths of a degree above that
of 24 observations, and from this last, that of 10 and 10, differs only
one-tenth of a degree. ;

4. Brooklyn Heights' Observations, hourly, for 1856, by E. Meriam^
esq. I have summed only the first seven days in each month. The
mean of 24 observations is 47°. 72, and of 10 and 10 is very near the

METEOROLOGY. 3 1 1

same ; while tliat of 7, 2 and 9 is 48°. 28, or greater than the 24 mean
by one-half a, degree nearly.

5. At Sacramento, Cal., lat. 38 N. The 24 mean is 64°. 41, and
the mean of 7, 2 and 9 is 64°. 11.

Note — By the last three it is evident that the mean of 7, 2 and 9
approaches nearer to that of the 24 mean, as the places have a lower
latitude, and an examination of the 24 hours ohservation in the Arctic
regions show^quite a departure of the mean of 7, 2 and 9 from the
mean of 24 observations.

The 24 hourly observations give the mean of the year —

At Halle 48°. 00

AtGottingea 52 82

At Padua 56 74

On calculating the mean of 7, 2 and 9, I find that —

At Halle '. 48 89

AtGottingen 53 45

At Padua 57 47

Observations on the temperature of Salem, Massachusetts, were
made with much care by Dr. Holyoke for thirty-fchree years precediilg
1819. The hours of observation were four, viz : 8 a. m., noon, sunset,
and 10 p. m. By interpolating for sunset, in my series of 24 daily
observations, I found that the mf-an from these four hours is only a
little greater than that of the three hours, 7 a. m., 2 and 9 p. m.
Dr. Hulyoke's mean temperature of Salem is 48.68 degrees. The
mean heat at Leith, by the 24 daily observations, is 48.24, and by the
hours, 7, 2 and 9, is 48.50.

This approximation from these four hours, and one of them variable,
is another unexpected result.

Between 1842 and 1855 the observations at the military posts were
directed to be made at four periods of the day, viz : a little be/ore sun-
rise as the coldest generally ; at 3 p. m. as the hottest, and at 9 a. m.
and 9 p. m. as approximating the mean temperature of the day, but
half the sum of the observations at sunrise, S. R., and 3 p. m. was
to be taken as the mean heat of the day. In the preparation of the
"Army Meteorological Register," published in 1856, the fourth part
of the sura of those four observations was taken as the mean of the
day, because Dr. Coolidge and his associate became satisfied from
extensive comparison of the twenty-four daily observations, that the
mean of ttie four observations was nearer the twenty-four mean, than
those at sunrise and 3 p. m. would give. Dr. Coolidge states also,
that the evidence was clear from the comparison of numerous twenty-
four hourly observations at the posts that the mean of 7, 2, and 9,
was for all the posts, the nearest approximation of any hours selected
to the mean of the twenty-four daily observations. In 1855, there-
fore, the Surgeon G-eneral, Dr. Lawson, issued his circular requiring
a return to the original hours of observation, viz: 7 a m., 2 p. m.,
and 9 p. m.

In ascertaining the relative correctness of the results in the " Con-
solidated Tables" of the Army Meteorological Register, taken for

312 METEOROLOGY. J

twenty-three years from the three daily observations, and for twelve
years from the four hours' record, it was important to make some tests.
These are as follows :

1. Prof. Snell performed the labor of interpolating for sunrise in
liis hourly observations for the year 1839, and sent to me the following
resuH: While the mean of the twenty-four hourly observations is ;]
47°. 23, the mean of the four hours, S. R., 9 a. m., 3 and 9 p. m., ig •
47°. 13, making a difference of only one-tenth of a degree.

This was an unexpected result, iDut of high interest. My own ob- - ^
servations interpolated in the same way gave only a little greater rl
difference.

2. The Consolidated Tables in the Army Meteorological Eegister
yield the following proofs:

a.— For Fort Columbus, N. Y., p. 600, latitude 40°. 42,

The mean of 33 years is 51°. 69 I

The mean of 7, 2, and 9, 21 years, is... .51°.42 I

The mean of the four hours, 12 years, is 51°. 83 1

Either hours give a close approximation.

h. — For Alleghany Arsenal, Penn., p. 605, latitude 40°. 32,

The mean for 2 1 years is 50°. 86 1

The mean of 7, 2, and 9, for 9 years is 50°. 43 i

The mean of four hours, 12 years is 50°. 75 >

This is another close approximation.

c— For Fort McHenry, Md., p. 607, latitude 39°. 17,

The mean of 21 years is 54°. 86 >

The mean of 7,2, and 9, of 12 years is 53°. 97 ^

The mean of four hours, 9 years is 54°. 86 '•■

c^.— For Fort Monroe, Va., p. 608, latitude 37°. 00,

The mean of 30 years is _. 59°. 22

The mean of 3 hours, 18 years is 59°. 29

The mean of 4 hours, 12 years is 59°. 04

e.— For Fort Gibson, Indian Territory, p. 624, latitude 34°. 47,

The mean of 27 years is 60°. 81

The mean of 3 hours, 15 years is 61°. 53 '•'

The mean of 4 hours, 12 years is 60°. 19 I

/.—For Fort Gratiot, Mich., p. 627, latitude 43°,

The mean of 14 years is 46°. 29 '

The mean of 3 hours, 9 years is 46°. 62 ;

The mean of 4 hours, 5 years is 45°. 30 •;

(/.—For Fort Brady, Mich., p. 629, latitude 461°,

The mean of 26 years is 40°. 37

The mean of 3 hours, 18 years is 40°. 56

The mean of 4 hours, — years is 39°. 53

/i.— For Fort Snelling, Minn. Ter.,p. 632, latitude 45°,

The mean for 34 years is 44°. 54

The mean for 3 hours, 22 years is 45°. 17 '

The mean for 4 hours, 12 years is 44°. 06 i;

i. — For Fort Leavenworth, Kan. Ter., p. 633, latitude 39|°, '

The mean of 23 years is 52°. 78

The mean of 3 hours, 12 years is 52°. 35

The mean of 4 hours, 11 years is 52°. 65 >j|

i METEOROLOGY. 313

j Ic. — For Jefferson Barracks, Mo., p. 625, latitude 38^°,

(The mean of 22 years is 55° 46

I The mean of 3 hours, 11 years is 56°. 42

I The mean of 4 hours, 11 years is 55°. 77

i In all these only whole years are introduced, while in the annual
I means of tlie Consolidated Tables, parts of years are sometimes intro-
duced, which will account for a slight discrepancy to be noticed in
some of the results.

The conclusion from the above results is that the observations at the
three hours, and at the four, give close approximations.

To all this add the assertion of Dr. Coolidge, j)reviously mentioned,
which led to a return to the hours of 7 a. m,, 2 and 9 p. m., at the
Military Posts. At these three hours also, the observations under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution are made over the country.

These are convenient hours for recording observations over our ex-
tensive country, and the results need only slight correction, according
to the publications in the Toronto Observations, and still less accord-
ing to the data already detailed.

From the observations of 1839 at Amherst College, and the results
communicated by Prof. Snell, I have deduced the following table of
corrections. Their object is to give the monthly mean, and hence
the annual mean of twenty-four daily observations, by applying the
numbers in the table, to the monthly mean at any hour, according to
their sijjns:

314

METEOROLOGY.

'fe

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CO^COO?^3:it^t^— "C^t^COGOCIt^COCOOi^OTiO'^C^CnO-— >:

• CD O CO O O

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METEOROLOGY. 315

To use the table, let the mean of observations at 7 a. m., for the
month of April be 42°. 5 7 ; apply the correction for that month and
hour in the table, 5.97, and you have this sum, 48.54, which is the
mean of the 24 hour observations for that month.

For the two hours, 7 and 7, in April, you would have —
^2-57 + 50.23 5.97-1.69:= 48.54 ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^
2^2 '

For the three hours, 7, 2, and 9, in March, take out the three means —

30.19 H- ^ 3.15 + 32.92 _ 35 42^ and corrections from the tables are

4.G2 — 8.34 + 1.89

3

= — 0.61.

The sum 34.81 is the mean of the 24 observations
for the mouth of March.

Note. — At the foot of the preceding table are given the corrections
for observations, made at various different hours of the days, to show
the nearer or more remote approximations to the mean of the 24 daily
results.

The first of these is for the hours 3 and 9 a. m., and 3 and 9 p. m.,
the hours adopted by the Royal Society for obtaining the approximate
mean temperature. These hoiirs are convenient, except that of 3 a. m.

The next corrections are derived from one-fourth of the observations
at 7 a. m., 2 p. m., and 2 (9) p. m., the last being twice the temper-
ature of 9 p. m. Avery near approximation is easily obtained in
this way : Thus, the mean of the year, in Amherst observations —

At - - - 7 a. m., is 42°. 46

At -

Twice

- - 2 p.m.,

- - 9 p. m.,

by 4 - - -
le correction -

is
is

55°
91°

.29
.40

.15

.29
.11

from

Sum -
Divide
Addtl

189°

47°

the table.

Approx. mean - - = 47°. 18
Mean of the 24, hourly = 47°. 23

Difference - - - - = 0°.05, only ^i^th of a degree.
Using the same formula for the Leith observations, the approximate
mean differs from that of the 24 observations only g^J o^h degree.

And for Toronto 4^0 "

Franklin arsenal, Pennsylvania 3V0 ''

Halle, about ^ ''

Padua, less than ^ "

Gottingen y^o "

Girard observations, not -j-^o- *'

Brooklyn heights about the same.
The advantages of using the fourth part of the observation at 7 a.
m., at 2 p. m., and twice that at 9 p. m., are obvious. The preceding
cases are ample illustration.

This table of corrections will have a special value in our country
from the locality in the heart of New England, where the observa-

316 METEOROLOGY.

M

tions were made. No similar table has before been derived from tlietn.
While it presents the analogies of other similar tables, it will be
better adapted to a large district of our country where meteorological
observations are being made systematically. Some gratification will
result to Professor Snell in such an application of his laborious and
scientific efforts, in this particular, in 1839.

Such tables, it is evident, avail nothing where one or more times of -
observation, as sunrise or sunset, have a constant change, even though;
they may give an approximate mean. In different latitudes sunrise>
has different hours, as well as sunset, and the corrections must requirer
a far greater series of observations and far more labor. Though thei
four hours used at the military posts for several years give an approxi- '■
mate mean, no correction for the sunrise observation is yet obtained.!

So great is the labor of making the observations, and of discussing
them for practical purposes, that the fewest practicable hours, noti
exceeding three, should be adopted for the observations of meteor- 1
ologists generally. Only a few observers, who are favorably situated 'i
also, can afford to make hourly observations for a year or for years;;
and when such have been made, as enable observers to make the cor--
rections from prepared tables^ the great object will be attained by
using only three hours of observation. The last line of corrections in i
the preceding table is derived from six hours of observation, used for'
some time at the Toronto Observatory, viz: six and eight a. m.j two
and/owr and ten p. m., and ituelve, or midnight. Though the correc-
tions are very small for these six hours, they are too numerous fori
ordinary object or advantage. The same objection lies against the
use of any four hours separated by six hours, as one and seven, both
a. m. and p. m.; which^ however, give very nearly the mean of 24
observations a day. Some of these hours will be very inconvenient
and troublesome. Take even the hours adopted by the Royal Society,
3 and 9 a. m., and 3 and 9 p. m. ; 3 a. m. is a very inconvenient hour,
though the four give very nearly the mean of the daily 24 observa-
tions, as shown in the first line of particular hours.

In a series of observations of twelve years, like those in the "Army;
Meteorological Register" of 1856, these four hours, or any four hours,;
would require a million more observations than the three hours, be-
sides increasing the labor of the reductions one-third more than is ■
necessary to attain the same approximation to accuracy.

It is hoped that adequate evidence of the value of observations at
the hours 7, 2 and 9, has been presented, and that a near approxi-
mation to the true mean is attainable. The results may be corrected,
if need be, by the prepared tables.

Rochester University, March 31, 1858.

METEOROLOGY.

317

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS.

BY J. WIESSNER.

1st. The daily results of mean temperature of the air in shade, as
)bserved on a farm in the District of Columbia.

2d. The monthly results.

3d. A trial adjustment, assuming that the mean motion of tem-
perature may be represented by the motion of an elastic ball jumping
ip and down.

4th. A comparison of the Washington summer with the summers
it Naples, Rome, Constantinople, Petersburg, and Savannah.

The probable error for the Washington series being very small,
shows that the observations were made carefully and in large num-
3er ; also, that the last summer was a very regular one.

The figures in the former table for adjusting the daily observations
tiave the probable error dr 0°.3, so that ten years' further observa-
tions will make them correct to the last figure.

Next, a table containing p for each day of observation. By
jsing the three tables and the simple formula ?„ = ^m + P ^^5 ^11
the observations now at the end of 1857, 4,500 in number, may be
recomputed and compared with the individual records, which will
^ive an average probable error of a single observation and reduction,
= zb 1°.4.

Mean temperature of the air in the shade of the District of Columbia.

Date.

October.

November

December,

Januarj',

February,

March,

Remarks. December,

1855.

1855.

18.55.

1856.

1856.

1856.

1856.t

1

°F.

.57.4
59.0
68.3

39.4
38.0
42.1

21.4
29.5
30.4

28.8
23.0
10.2

31.8
34.2
33.3

Mean for this period
36°. 1, or after ad-
justment, 35°. 8. Let

°

3

2

4

55.0
48.6
50.2
54.3
55.2
48.9
44.2
52.2
56.0
59.0
49 3
49.6

45.5
36.7
39.2
40.3
35.6
.55.2
35.8
28.6
26.0
34.7
32.0
39.6

15.8
18.5
26.4
28 2
16.7
5
2.5
11.0
22.6
30.9
30.0
27.5

7.5
14.0
16.9
33.8
33 1
29.0
29.2
33.3
24.1

8.6
10.6
96.9

42.1
30.7
34.2
28.8
35.6
19.6
15.1
27.9
34.0
29.7
36.1
36.3

fi be the number
of weeks before or
after the vveck,
(Feb.2— 8,)-j-after,
— before; then the
adjustment gave
the mean tempera-
ture for any week
// bv the formula :
tm."=25°.3+ 0.130
/<" with the proba-
ble error, ^^ 4°. 5.

5

6

62.8
46.4
45.5
52.6
58.8
60.6
45.9
41.4
48.9
58.3

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

53.8

63.5

55.6

27.9

34.7

31.6

The probable error

28.7

17

46 2

47.0

45.3

27.1

19.2

35.4

oftheweeklvnieans

27.0

18

53.6

46 8

36.5

25.5

21.2

39.2

as found from ob-

19 8

19

55 4

41.4

27.9

27.9

19.4

34.7

servations, was +

23.0

20

."58.6

35.0

30.0

16.0

31.6

42.3

1°.8.

35.2

21

60.6

40.1

35 6

17.1

31.6

41 9

21.7

22

.1-2.2

38.5

43.0

18.9

35.6

39.4

18.5

23

42.1

35.6

50.2

17.4

38.0

40.3

13.4

24

38.7

46.4

40.6

17.8

33.1

41.4

22.2

25

38.7

38.5

33.4

17.6

34.7

39.9

25.8

26

42.1

51.3

24.3

1 11.8

33.1

38.3

31.9

27

49.1

43.8

19.2

1 93.2

30.6

36.5

33.4

28

58.6

39.9

30.7

29.8

31.8

*

41.8

29

51.8

a5.3

23.7

23.4

33.5

39.2

30

60.3
55.8

30.3

26.0
26.0

17.4
1 15.8

32 8

31

30.2

Mvun.. .

51.5

47.8

36.0

20.7

26.1

34.5

27.8

■ Thermometer broke.

t New station and thermometer, east corner District of Columbia.

318 METEOROLOGY.

A table, [lo], of use for the reduction of observations for temperai!;
ture of the air in the shade, made at different hours of the day by thi
formula

ig. The observed temperature.

t^. The mean of the 24/i.

p. A factor depending on the disposition of the atmosj)here for solai
heat, the mean factor of the month being unit.

p w. The correction to the mean temperature of the day to get ou
the observed one.

t^ and p are to be found for each day by the method of least squares'
or by a good approximation to it, by a calculation shown on the next
page.

METEOROLOGY. 319

Example.
Reduction of observation for temperature by the formula
East corner of the District ot Columbia, September 1, 1857.

Observed.

1

Equations of condition.

Conip'd A.

A.M. 5

m.
30

o
55.0 =

'm — 8 2

P

— 18.4 = —

10. 8>)

o

56.9

— 1.9

G

00

57.8 =

f.-7.6

P

— 15.6 = —

10.2 p

57.8

0.0

7

00

63.8 =

^™ - 4 2

P

— 9.6 = —

6.8 ^j

63.0

+ 0.8

8

00

67.8 =

«. + 0.3

P

— 5.6 = —

2.3 p

69 8

— 2.0

9

00

73.8 =

^. + 2 5

P

4- 0.4 = ~

0.1 JO

732

+ 0.6

10

00

77.0 =

'.+ 5.4

P

+ 3.6 = +

2.8p

77.7

— 0.7

11

00

80.8 =

'. + 7-3

P

+ 7.4= +

4.7i>

80 6

+ 0.2

P M. 12

15

83 =

'. + 9

P

+ 9.6= +

6.4/9

83.2

— 2

1

15

83.8 =

'. + 9-4

P

+ 10.4= +

6.8 p

83 8

0.0

2

00

83.8 =

L+9.3

P

+ 10.4= +

6.7 p

^3.7

+ 0.1

3

00

83 =

tr. + 9-0

V

+ 9.6= +

6.4 p

83.2

— 0.2

4

00

81.8 =

'. + 8.0

P

+ 8.4 = +

5.4 p

81.7

+ 0.1

5

00

79.8 =

'. + 6.4

P

+ 6.4= +

3.8 JO

79.2

+ 0.6

7

15

70.5 =

L + 0.1

V

— 2.9 =: —

2 5 p

69.6

+ 0.9

8

15

67.5 =

tr. - 1-9

'P

— 5.9 = —

4.5 p

66.5

+ 1.0

y

00

66. =

^.-2.8

P

— 7.4 = —

5.4^

65.7

+ 0.3

73.4 =

'.+ 2.6

P

131.2 =

85.5^3

*i' A

= 9.6

* i' A = 9.6 : 15.5 = 0.62
0.09

Normal eq..

No. of observations, 16.
Result,

± 0.53

p= 1.53

t^— 69^.4 ±0.13

£o= ± 0.5

320

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•jsqiuajdag

•jsnSnv

•Xitif

•Xniv

•nJdy

•llDiEIV

•.Ocnjqa^j

•XiBnucf

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METEOROLOGY.

321

Mean temperature of the air, in the shade, of the Didrict of Columhia.

857

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1

2

i3

11

5

6

7

I

10
1
-2

!3
!4
to

17
«
9
10
1

F.
30 3
38.7
2&A

29.0
3). 5
23.5
SI.O
11.6
20.4
28.1
30.0
17.4
21.9
23.0
23.9
11.9
31.9
4.7
14.0
17.1
33.1
6.7
4.1
7.4
11.0
10.0
37.7
3-2.7
33 9
27.1
36.4

35.7
23.7
19.0
42.0
46.2
54.0
49.8
52 3
27.2
25 1
17.5
26.0
38.6
4U.6
53.1
59.8
6it.O
56.0
62.3
39.0
47.7
38.6
44.4
52.0
61.9
41.8
38.7
42.8

40.0
22.6
21.9
33.7
34.6
36.7
26.4
93 9
29.4
27.0
33.5
29.0
26.7
38.4
40.2
43.1
45.1
53.1
41.9
44.1
48.4
48.9
48.6
60.1)
52.0
41.0
41.2
44.0
40.4
46 4
45.8

48 3
30.7
34.7
49.6
60.7
48.0
33.7
44.1
50 5
46.6
50.0
43.9
37.0
42.3
4a. 3
40.3
38.7
39.2
41.5
35.1
40.5
39.5
45.9
47.2
51.2
52.3
56.3
53.8
50.4
51.4

51.1
60.0
62.8
61.1
63.4
61.1
56.9
61.0
62.0
68.7
51.3
51.9
57.4
63.5
58.4
57.5
59.2
50.0
43.6
44.5
50.8
60.6
64.9
67.7
71.7
72.5
69.7
67.4
64.8
65.8
71.1

72 9
70.1
68.3
68.5
53.8
61.3
68.8
70.9
68.0
65.6
68.8
70.7
75.0
75.3
75.2
79.7
75.8
75.8
67 9
75.2
74.6

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

74.7
75.9
74.3
75.6
79.0
77.6
77.7
76.1
75.3
75.7
81 5
80.8
78.0
75.0
71.9
73.9
76.7
79.8
79.2
79.0
77 7
74.2
75.2

74.9
74.6
74.5
72.5
72.8
73.7
71.8
73.1
77.0
74.9
75.0
76.5
81.3
64.4
82 5
73.6
76.8
75.3
71.8
69.3
66.8
67.1
70.0
66.4
64. 7
70.6
69.4
76.5
68.7
65.2
63.7

G9.5
71.4
69.5
74.5
75.4
73 5
58.8
58.0
63.1
69.0
71.1
72.6
73.0
73.3
71.6
65.3
78.3
76.3
61.8
64.7
61.0
6.1.4
.W.8
57.8
.59.2
65.4
67.5
66.5
54.5
49.7

54.7
61.8
63.2
56.5
56 6
54.4
.54.7
53.7
.55.9
58.4
.59.6
64.0
65.2
67.0
63 2
53 6
.50.8
.53.7
61.6
43.2
40.6
43.5
49 5
53.2
54.8
49.2
48.0
41.9
45.7
45.2
49 -«

46.0
50.0
43.3
42.6
53.3
64.9
66.7
71.9
71.5
43.4
39.5
42.3
50.5
37.6
30.0
41.6
45.3
46.5
41.8
26.4
31.0
42.0
47.8
33.7
22.0
22.0
S9.8
32.5
41.0
41.7

44.6
37.8
44.3
37.4
43.0
43.6
44.7
55.7
64.5
45.8
37.3
29.5
3U.0
40.6
41.8
40 4
45.0
52.2
43.6
35.2
34.8
42.0
38.7
35.5
30.3
32.7
30.4
37.3
40.4
38.5
38.9

Hean 29.4

38.9

60.4

70.6

76.7

72.9

53.7

43.2

53^8

40.6

* New thermometer from the Smithsonian Institution,
t Thermometer broke during the hailstorm of June 21.

21 s

322

METEOEOLOGY.

Adjustment of temperature for Washington, Summer 1857.

Obs.

Assumerl eq. of
conilition.

— 3

— 2

April — 3
May — 2

44.9 = x — SyJ^Qz
60.4 = 1 — 2!/-J-4c

— 1

June — 1

70.6 = x — \ y ^ \ z

July

76.7 = X

+ 1

Aug. -f 1

72.9 = x-\.\y^\z

+ 2

gept. + 2
Oct. + 3

66.. "5 =:a- + 2v + 4s
53.7 =z X + "i y + ^ z

63.7 = X +42
11.6

+

— IS.S = — ?, y + 5 z

— 3.3 = — 2 1/

+ G.9 = — 1 y — 3 z

+ 13.0 = — 4 z

+ 92 = +:;/ — S^r _

+ 2.8 = + 2 1/

— 10.0 = -f 3 ij + 5

Normal Eq.
~ .i7.9 = 20 a-
+ 17.3 =l-iy

- 18,8 +18.8

- 6.9 + 3.3

—

6

10

- 13.0 + 9.2

+
+*

16

34

- 9.2 + 2.8

- 10.0

17

57.9

Solution.
z = — 'Z.
?/ = +!■
X = 75.

Washington, Summer, 75°. ^ F. -j- 1. 4 m — 2. 90 nj^ _j- qo. 5.

•April.

+ 75 3

— 4.2

— 26.1

+ 45.0
Kc^id'ls—
— 0.1

May.

+ 75.3
_ 2.8
— 11.6

75.3
1.4
2.9

+ 60.9 + 71.0
— 0.5 — 0.4

July.

+ 75.3

+ 1-4
— 2.9

+ 75.3
+ 1.4

+ 73.8
— 0.9

Sept.

+ 753
+ 2.8
— 11.6

+ 66.5
0.0

Oct.

Sum of Resid.

+ 75.3
+ 4.2
— 26.1

+ 53.4
+ 0.3

— 1.9

3.3:6 = 0..5
O.ll

± 0.4

Mean.
1.4:5.8 = 0.24
24 30

7,2
15.5

23tli

Blaximum y tonip, July 23, 75°. 4
75.3
+ 0.3
— 0.2

75.4

For comparison —

The summer of Naples Lat. 40°. 9

Rome 41.9

Const uitinople

Petersburg.... .59.8 61.7+ 0.9 7n

Savannah..... 32.1 80.2+ 0.6 Jft

°.0 + 1.3 TO— 1.75 TO= + 0.7

3.9 + 1 3 JM — 1.69 m" ± 0.7

7.7+ 1.3 m— 2.05 m^ + 1.5

2.70 m" + 0.8

1.28 m» ± 0.7

METEOROLOGY. 323

OBSERVATIONS ON NATURAL PHENOMENA.

BY STILLMAN MASTERMAN, ESQ.

Weld, Maine, February 26, 185T.

Dear Sir : Pnrsuaat to my promise, I present to you the registry
of certain miscellaneous natural phenoraena observed l3y myself during
a few past years, belonging principally to the departments of meteor-
ology and astronomy. Fragmentary and unsystematic as the obser-
vations are, they can be of comparatively little value ; however_, as
every phenomenon of nature, even the most trifling, is worthy of a
place in the great study of the universe, and as you are desirous of
collecting all registries of natural phenomena, I deem it proper to
place them at your disposal. The accompanying observations were
made with no idea of placing them before the public, but under the
conviction that perhaps they might be of some use in my future scien-
tific investigations. Moreover, they were conducted during fragments
of time which happened not to be taken up by what I considered to be
more imjtortant duties, therefore in many cases they are separated by
long intervals of time, not from the want of phenoraena to oDservc,
but from an inability to make trustworthy observations. So few ob-
servations afford very insufficient data for generalizations ; however,
the coincidence of certain results with those derived fr,)m more exten-
sive series are frequently very apparent. The following are some of
the well known principles which the annexed observations tend to
confirm :

1. That shooting stars have been more numerous, at,least for a few
past years, on or about the 10th of August, and for a number of days
both befor > and after that date, than at other times of the year.

2. Tliat these meteors frequently leave long bright trains behind
them in the sky.

3. That during an exhibition they commonly have one general
direction of motion.

4. That exhibitions of the aurora borealis commonly commence at
an early hour of the evening.

5. That auroral exhibitions generally have their maximum before
midnight.

6. That in our latitudes auroras have been seen in all parts of the
sky.

7. That the zodiacal light may be seen, in the absence of the moon,
on clear evenings during the months of January, February, and

i March.

8. That this cone of light lies nearly in the plane of the ecliptic.

9. That the zodiacal light at times may be traced above 90° from
the sun.

Yours, truly,

STILLMAN MASTERMAN.
Professor Joseph Henry,

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

324 METEOKOLOGY.

A.

OBSEEVATIONS OF SHOOTING STARS.

WELD, FRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE.

1847 — December 11. — At 8A. 30m. p. m. I saw a very brilliant
shooting star, which i'ell in the northwest. I should judge that when ■
it was in sight I could have read the smallest print without difficulty
in its light. It left a bright streak or tail of phosphorescent matter, i
60*^ or 70° in length, which remained motionless for about 30 seconds, •■
when it gradually vanished. The nucleus of light was apparently of i
three-fourths the diameter of the lunar orb, and it was about 2 seconds 1
in passing over 70° of the celestial sphere, disappearing very near the
horizon.

1849 — Septemher 15. — Saw three large shooting stars.

jSeptemher 19. — Observed three shooting stars.

September 20. — At 8A. p. m. I observed a brilliant shooting star, i
enveloped in a nebulous mist, and having a cylindrical cometic tail, 1
4° in length. It shot out brilliant jets or tufts of rays from its nucleus \
on its foremost side, which were bent back into the tail, presenting, :
in miniature, the phenomena of Halley's comet, so conspicuous to
astronomers, during its last return in 1835. It passed between a An-
dromecloi and /3 Fegasi, towards Fomalhaut, describing 60° of the
heavens in about 2 seconds' time. I also observed two other shooting
stars on the same evening.

October 3, evening. — Saw two shooting stars.

JSIovemher 14. — In the evening I saw four shooting stars.

1850 — August 4. — At 8A. 30m. p. ra. I observed a large meteoric
star. Its path was marked by a trail of light nearly 15' in Avidth,
which disappeared in about 4 seconds' time. Its path lay from a
Cygni to near £ Sagittarii.

August 5. — At 2h. p. m. saw two shooting stars. The first appeared
to be as bright and to subtend nearly the same angle as the planet
Jupiter. It passed from Unuk al Ray in the Serpent to Arcturus in
about three-lourths of a second. The other appeared like a mere line
of light described by a brilliant point, and vanished in an instant.

August 7. — At 9A. 30w. p. m. saw a meteoric star, apparently to
pass from near o Draconis by j3 of that constellation to the foot of
Btrcides. It appeared to be a streak or trail of light about 8° in
length, and, if my measurement of time can be trusted, it described
an arc of 30° in less than a half second.

August 9. — In the evening saw four shooting stars.

August 10. — Between 87i. 30m. and 9/i. 20m. p. m. I saw thirty-four
shooting s+ars, some of which were very brilliant. All excepting four
small ones appeared to pass down the Via Lacte, or near to and
parallel with it, from the northeast to the southwest, some as follows :
h/i. 30m., one passed from near e Cygni, between a and ^Q Aquilce, to
the 31illc Dipper in Sagittarius ; Sh. 35. m, two passed from Dculeus
to the head of Capricornus ; Sh. 40m., one passed from yj OphiucJii to

! ' METEOROLOGY. 325

Scorpio; S7i. 48m., one passed from Scutum Sohieski to j Saglttarii ;
ISA. 5Sm., observed two at the same instant, having their paths nearly
{parallel with each other, and about 8° apart. One passed to the cast
and the other to the west of the Milk Dipper. All of the foregoing
seven meteors were accompanied by trails of liglit.

August 11 — Between l/i. and 'Ih. a. m., saw twenty-one shoot-
ing stars during ten minutes' observation. They passed down the
\3lilky Way Irom Oygnus to Scutum Sohieski. A greater part of them
Weie attended by trails of light,

I September 1. — At about 9A. 10m. p. m., there was a brilliant meteor
in the west, which approached the horizon rather slov/ly, describing
in appearance a serpentine line. Its light was almost equal to that
of the full moon, and its apparent diameter nearly 20'.

September 4. — Between \h. and 4/i. a. m., observed eight shooting
stars. Some of tliem left brilliant trails.

September 22. — In the evening, saw two shooting stars fall in tlie SB.

September 30. — Between 8^. 5m. and 87i. 10m. p. m., saw two shoot-
ing stars fall to the southwest. Between 9/i. 45m. and lOh. of the same
evening, I saw three shooting stars pass near to the Milky Way and
barallel with it.

October 7. — In the evening, saw three shooting stars.

October 9. — In the evening, saw four shooting stars.

October 30. — In the morning, saw a brilliant shooting star. Even-
ing of same clay, saw two shooting stars. One appeared to rise up-
wards from the earth. It was in the vicinity of the constellation
Perseus.

November 1. — About 47?-. a. m.^ observed two meteoric stars.

November 10. — 8/i. 30m. p. m., saw a meteoric star.

November 12. — 6|/t. p. m., saw a brilliant shooting star pass from
bear d Copricornus to /9 Draconis. It left a conical trail of light,
Which remained visible but a little more than one second. Betweea
\lh. and 8A., saw a shooting star.

November 13 — At G7i. 30m. p. m,, saw a meteoric star.

November 20. — In the evening, I saw a swiftly moving shooting
star. I judged that it moved 20° of the sphere in ^ second.

November 24. — 77i. p. m., I saw a meteoric star.

December 1. — In the evening, saw two shooting stars.

December 30. — 67i. 38^re. p. m., saw a brilliant m.eteoric star.

1851 — January 11. — Evening, saw a small shooting star.

January 24. — Evening, observed two shooting stars.

March 31. — I saw two shooting stars.

STILLWATER, MINNESOTA TERRITORY.

1851 — July 19. — In evening, saw four shooting stars.

Atigtist 5. — In the evening, observed two shooting stars.

August 9. — In the evening, saw three shooting stars during fifteen
minutes' observation.

August 10. — In the evening, saw nine shooting stars during one
Jiour's observation.

326 METEOROLOGY.

August 20. — In the evening, saw four shooting stars during thirty
minutes' observation.

August 21. — In the evenings saw three shooting stars during forty-
five minutes' observation.

August 22. — In the evening, saw two shooting stars during fifteen
minutes' observation. In the same evening I saw a shooting star
apparently rise upwards. It was about three seconds in moving 45°,
and made an angle with the horizon of about 30°.

August 26. — In the evening, saw five shooting stars during forty-
five minutes' observation.

August 27. — In the evening, saw three shooting stars during thirty
minutes' observation.

August 28. — In the evening, saw two shooting stars during sixty
minutes' observation.

Septemher 18. — In the evening, saw three shooting stars. One
appeared to rise upwards more than 30° of the vertical.

Septemher 23 — Saw a very brilliant shooting star.

Septemher 24. — In the evening, saw two meteoric stars.

Septemher 25. — In the evening, saw three shooting stars.

Septemher 26. — In the evening, saw three shooting stars.

Septemher 28. — In the evening, saw a meteoric star.

Sepitemher 29. — In the evening, observed a brilliant shooting star.

' SUMMARY EECAPITULATION.

Whole number of shooting stars recorded as observed pre-
viously to the beginning of the year 1852 , 173

Observed previous to the year 1850 16

Observed during the year 1850 100

Observed during the year 1851 57

During the last five months of 1850, I usually passed an hour or
two in the open air on every clear evening, and noted down all of
the shooting stars that I saw, the number in each month being as
loUows :

Au^'ust 63

September 16

October 10

November 8

December 3

Total 100

During 1851, I not only passed much less time in making such
observations, but likewise recorded only a part of the observations
made. The following is the number recorded as seen in each of the
months of that year :

January 3

February

March..." 2

April

May

METEOROLOGY. 327

June

July 4

August 34

September 14

October

November

December

Total 5T

B.

AURORA BOREALIS AND OTHER METEORS.

WELD; PRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE.

Bonarkahle Meteor.

I 1850 — September 30, — At 9/i. 307n. p. m. I saw a remarkably
jgtrange meteor iu the southern sky. Its shape was that of an ellip-
':ical zone or ring, and when first seen its centre was about 5° east
and the same distance north of FomaUiaut, or in R. A. 23/i. dm.,
jind declination 25° 23'. Its longer axis lay in nearly an east and west
direction. The length of its transverse axis was about 10°, and of its
?3onjugate diameter 5°. Width of the bright belt or annular surface
pn the upper part of the ellipse 2°, on its lower part 1°. The north-
ern part was very brilliant, but its southern part was dimmer. It
Inoved slowly to the westward, and also had a rotary motion. At 9/i.
iom. its centre was 4° north of Fomalhaut and on the same declina-
•ion circle ; being less brilliant tlian when first observed, but of the
drst noticed figure.

i At 107i. its centre was in about R. A. 22A. 257/1., and declination
127° 23'. Its length was then nearly 15°, and width 3°. It was
icarcely perceptible. It disappeared at lOA. 10«i.

STILLWATER, MINNESOTA TERRITORY.

First Class Aurora.

\ 1851 — Sppteniber 29. — In the evening there was a remarkable exhi-
bition of the Aurora Borealis. Soon after dark I observed a small and
jrilliantly white orch, having its point of culmination, which was about
10° above the horizon, very nearly, if nut precisely, in the magnetic
[meridian, in the north. (The magnetic needle has a variation at this
place of about 9:^-° east, epoch 1850.) Soon after this, deep red streamers

328 METEOEOLOGY.

I

were shot upward from the arch, 10 or 15 degrees apart, along its
whole length, which converged to a focus, as it were, in the south mag-
netic pole of the dipping needle. One of these, which stretched like
a broad band along the magnetic meridian, was of a deep crimson or
almost blood color. After a short pause the northern arch began to
rise slowly towards the zenith, where it was apparently dispersed.
On the disappearance of the first arch in the zenith a second arch
began to form, and was soon completed, in the south, just as if it was i
the reuniting of the first arch after passing the zenith ; also concentric!
with tlie magnetic meridian, and having an altitude of 30° above the i
southern horizon. The extremities of this southern arch reached i
nearly 40° on each side of the magnetic meridian. Beneath this arch, i
which was about 5° in breadth, was an intensely black arch concen- i
trie with the white one. Just as the southern arch was formed, twoi
deeply red belts, springing from the horizon at the points formerly ;
occupied by the extremities of the northern arch, stretched themselves '
through the zenith, crossing each other at that point, and ran down i
nearly to the southern arch. These soon vanished, when a black seg- '
ment of a circle was formed in the magnetic north, having its edge :
fringed with a silvery white. During this the southern arch had i
remained nearly unchangeable. Presently, alternately red and white
streamers darted up from the horizon, or near to it, all around the con-
cave, varying in width from 1° to 3° or 4° and converging towards
the zenith, the southern arch still remaining as before. On the ceasing
of this phenomenon the southern arch became serpentine in its course.
About two hours after thiSj that is about 11 o'clock, the aurora,
arriving at its maximum, presented a most beautiful spectacle. The
whole northern sky, from the east to the west, became thickly beset
with a multitude of stud like streamers, in the north coming to within
only about 15° of the horizon, but at the east and west meeting the
horizon along an azimuth of nearly 30°, which all converged into a
beautiful corona about the pole of the dipping needle. These stream-
ers seemed all to have a sort of tremulous or wave-like motion from
one side to the other in rapid succession. Shortly afterwards the (
corona sent out streamers down the southern sky, thus completing the t
auroral illumination of the whole visible concave. Just at this time -;
there was another arch formed, in the north, that is to say in the mag-
netic north, stretching about 60° along the horizon, with an altitude
at the culminating point of 40°, and composed of brilliant white
columns diverging from the north point of the compass, shaded with
black beneath. In a few minutes this arch mingled itself with the
columns, converging to the pole of the dipping needle ; then there
followed a succession of auroral Avaves, passing over the whole sky,
not unlike the electric flashes sometimes observed in thunder clouds.
The southern arch maintained its position nearly three hours, disap-
pearing, hov/ever^ during the occurrence of the last named phenome-
non. Daring the above auroral display the sky was clear from clouds ;
for as brilliant as the auroras were the brighter stars could be j^lainly
seen through them, even where they were intensely black. The aurora
continued more or less brilliant during the remainder of the night.
This auroral display was characterized by all the more conspicuous

METEOROLOGY. 329

phenomena of tlie liigher classes, sucli as arches, streamers, a cofona,
and auroral waves, the corona and waves being remarkably developed.
The southern arch, however, was perhaps the most remarkable phe-
nomenon of the exhibition.

Second Class Aurora Borealis.

December 23. — In the evening there was an auroral exhibition. A
dark arch was formed in the north, having an altitude at its culmin-
ating point of 15°, and its centre of curvature lying in the magnetic
meridian. Numberless streamers shot upward from the .arch to an
elevation of 45°. The aurora was visible about one hour. The bril-
liancy of the streamers would place this exhibition in the seco7id class
aurora.

Lunar Halo.

December 27. — In the evening I saw a beautiful halo around the
moon. The interior diameter of the ring was about 3°, and its exte-
rior diameter was fully 7°. The inner edge of the ring was of a deep
crimson color, and its exterior a brilliant blue ; while it had an inter-
mediate annulus of yellow, bordering on an orange color. The width
of the red ring was f°, that of the blue f°, and that of the yellow ^°.
The phenomenon was seen only about three or four minutes.

Auroras of the Third and Fourth Glasses.

1852 — January 23. — In the evening saw a fourth class aurora bore-
alis.

January 24. — In the evening I observed the aurora borealis, but the
exhibition was of little importance, being of the lowest class.

February 7. — In the evening saw aurora borealis.

February 18. — In the evening there occurred quite a brilliant exhi-
bition of the aurora borealis, with finely developed streamers. I saw
a very curious auroral meteor in the constellation Virgo. Its shape
was that of the head of a huge spear. Its foremost point was in the
vicinity of Spica, and the two anterior points were situated, the one
near y, and the other near r^ of that constellation. It remained visi-
ble only a few minutes.

February 19. — In the evening observed a slight auroral corrusca-
tion.

Parhelia.

February 26. — In the morning I observed two brilliant parhelia, one
on each side of the sun. The sun's altitude at the time was nearly
15°, and the mock suns were distant about 30° on each side of the real
sun. On their inner, or sides next the sun, their light was of dazzling
brightness, and their outer sides were tinged with the prismatic hues.

330 METEOROLOGY.

Minor auroras.

March 9. — In the evening the sky was clear and serene. I saw an
auroral arch in the north, having its centre coinciding with the mag-
netic meridian.

March 12. — In the evening, saw the aurora borealis.

March 17. — In the evening, saw a fourth class aurora borealis.

Parhelia.

3Iarch 1*7. — Soon after sunrise I observed two parhelia, one on each
side of the sun, which remained visible at least two hours.
3Iarch 19. — After sunrise I saw a parhelion.

WELD^ FRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE.

Aurora horealis.

November 10. — In the evening I saw an auroral display, con-
sisting of a number of short streamers beset around the magnetic
norlh. While gazing on theee I beheld a meteor resembling an
electric spark, which suddenly emerged from a brilliant streamer that
lay in the magnetic meridian, and vanished in a moment. It a])peared
to have a lateral and downward movement of about 2°. Color of
streamers yellowish white.

November 11. — In the evening I observed an auroral exhibition,
which was much more brilliant than that of the 10th instant. The
streamers reached a height of 45°, being intensely bright, and of a
yellowish white color.

Solar halo. ^

r-

1853 — 3Iay 2*7. — When the sun had descended about a semi-diam-
eter of its lower limb, below the horizon in the west, I saw the fol-
lowing semi-circle of a solar halo. The interior diameter of the circular
halo was about 8°, and its exterior diameter 18°. Its interior was
crimson colored, and the several prismatic hues were depicted out-
ward in succession. It was very brilliant, and a beautiful object for
contemplation.

Aurora horealis.

June 2. — In the evening, saw an auroral exhibition. The streamers
were quite brilliant, long, and slender.

June 27. — At a little past SA. in the evening I saw a fine aurora.
It was in the form of a great arch, about 140° in length, and from 2°
to 3° in breadth. The arch on the east approached within 3° o^ Alt air ;
on or near the meridian it passed through Coro7ia Borealis ; and its
western extremity was near (^ Leo7iis. It was very brilliant ; and I

METEOROLOGY. 331

observed a 0111111)61 of oscillations or waves pass along its meridian
portion longitudinally. These waves were slow in progress, and some-
what gyratory in appearance. Only a faint illumination was observed
in the north.

Rainbow .

July 12. — "When the sun had been hidden nearly fifteen minutes by
the western hills, and was just on the point of passing below the plane
of the horizon, I saw a beautiful rainbow. The bow was entire, and
of splendid prismatic hues. Fragments of a secondary bow were seen.
The bow in a few minutes showed a great preponderance of red rays,
and did not disappear until the moment of sunset.

# Aurora horealis.

Sepfeniher 2. — In the evening, observed an auroral exhibition. At
first, a dark segment of a circle appeared in the magnetic north,
about 10^ in altitude at its culminating point. This was soon beset
around its exterior with brilliant rays of a yellowish white. These
rays extending out laterally shortly formed a serpentine arch, still
with the black beneath. Then a few streamers shot upwards towards
the zenith. Shortly afterwards these phenomena died away, and the
northern sky remained quite luminous, with here and there patches
of cirrus in iilmentous wisps. I saw several small stars through the
dark auroral vapor first observed.

1854 — March 26. — In the evening observed brilliant aurora hore-
alis. Saw a fine auroral arch, having an altitude from the northern
horizon of above 45°, and reaching from the eastern to the western
horizon. Width of arch about 10°. I saw many minor exhibitions
of the aurora horealis during the winter of 1853-'54.

Ma7'ch 21). — In the evening I observed a beautiful auroral meteor.
It resembled the tail of a huge comet, proceeding from a nucleus about
10° north of Sinca Virginis. It lay along below Leo Major, branching
out into two bright streams, with a fainter dawn between, the northern
branch reaching a Canis Minoris, and the southern terminating a few
degrees north of Canis Major. The above was its appearance at 8A.
\hm. It was very brilliant, and remained visible for sometime.

May 16. — In the evening saw a fine auroral arch, having an alti-
tude of 70° in the north. It was composed of a great number of short
transverse streamers 2° or 3° apart.

Rapid oscillations in refraction.

September 4. — In the evening I observed rapid vertical oscil-
lations in the lunar orb, when crossed horizontally by thin cirrus
bands ; the latter projected in perspective on the lunar disk, reminding
one of the belts of Ju[)iter. She appeared to rise and i'all rapidly in
the vertical through about |^° arc : corresponding fluctuations being
observed in the shadows of objects in her light. A number of other
persons observed the phenomenon, which lasted about ten minutes.

332 METEOROLOGY.

The altitude of tlie moon was about 15° ; and tlie cirrus bands crossing
ber disk remained apparently unchangeable and motionless. A storm
of rain followed before the next morning;.

0.
THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.

WELD, FRANKLIN COUNTY, MAINE.

1853 — January 31. — On this, as well as several preceding evenings, ,
I have observed a pyramidal column of whitish light, after the ceasing j;
of twilight, extending along the ecliptic from the western horizon to ,
an altitude of 40° or more, which must be the conical body of the ;
zodiacal light.

1854 — February 21. — Between 87i. and 9/i. in the evening I observed
the zodiacal light. Its base at the horizon was above 18° in Vv^idth, ,
and the altitude of its vertex about 35°.

1855 — January 14. — After the ceasing of twilight I saw the cone
of zodiacal light. It was very brilliant, as much so as that part of
the milky loay visible at that season. Its vertex was above 90° from .
the sun ; in fact, a faint illumination seemed to extend almost to the
eastern horizon. Its width at its base was more than 20°. It was
observed on several other evenings of the winter.

1856 — February 2. — In the evening observed the zodiacal light;
it having been seen on several evenings during the preceding month.
It uniformly reaches about 90° from the sun, having an apparent '
width at the horizon of 40°. Sometimes a faint reflection is observed '■
in the east.

1856 — February^ — After the ceasing of twilight in the evening ;
observed the zodiacal light. Apparent width at the horizon 40°,
length 10° from the sun.

1850 — Blarch. — I saw the pyramidal column of zodiacal light on
every evening, in absence of the moon, during this month. It appears
at the horizon of a width varying from 10° to 40°, and an apparent
length of from 30° to 90°, and even upwards.

1857 — January. — During this month I have frequently observed
the zodiacal light. Its vertex is generally not less than 90° from the
sun. On some very clear evenings a faint illumination may be traced li
to the distance of 170° or 180° from, the sun^ being visible a greater '
part of the night. Its width at the horizon sometimes reaches 40°.
Its axis appears to lie a little above the ecliptic, or to have a small
north latitude ; the amount of which is difficult of determination.

EEPOET

RECENT PEOGRESS IN PHYSICS.

BY Dr. JOEl. MULLER,

PROFESSOR 0? PHYSICS AND TECHflOLOGY i;« TUE DNIVERSITY OF FEEIBCRQ.

[Translated from the German for the Smithsonian Institution.!

In revising this translation, originally made by different persons,
it lias been the constant aim to give as nearly and as literally as pos-
sible the exact language of the author. But one exception has been
made to this rule. In the case of the citation of English philosophers
reference has been made to the original memoirs, and their own lan-
guage adopted, instead of that of the report, wherever it was evident
that the intention had been to give the equivalent German to their
English. It is due to the author, however, to state that this change
has been at most but a verbal one, not material to the sense. The
notice is, however, deemed necessary, because this is the only departure,
save in one or two unimportant cases, from the strict rendering of the
language of the text.

GEORGE C. SCHAEFFER.

SECTION THIRD.
THE LEYDEN JAR AND EFFECTS OP THE DISCHARGE.
[Continued from page 456, of the Report of 1856.]
. THE SECONDARY CURRENT.

§ 56. Nature of the secondary current. — When a battery is dis-
jcharged by a long metallic wire the current in the conducting circuit
■ wire induces a current in an adjoining closed wire conductor.

The wire which forms the conducting circuit of the battery is known
as the main ivire.

The wire in which a cifrrent is induced by the action of the current
in the main wire is termed the secondary loire.

[The existence of the secondary current was demonstrated in a series
of experiments by Professor Joseph Henry in 1838, published in the
jTransactioQs of the American Philosophical i?ociety," vol. 6, p. 40,
in 1839, a publication apparently unknown to our author.

334

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

The experiments of Riess and of Henry were therefore nearly simul-
taneous, as were the subsequent announcements. The article men-
tioned anticipates, however, much that is discussed in the following
sections of this report, founded on later publications of Kiess and
others. Thus experiments upon screening effects, upon secondary
conductors at different distances, and upon the difference in magne-
tism, were recited. The latter of these, in connexion with the matter
in § 70, throw additional light upon the apparently abnormal devel-
opment of magnetism. But the whole set of experiments, and the
deductions from them, were given as a sequel to similar investigations
upon secondary currents with galvanic electricity ; severed from this
connexion much of their value would be lost, and to reproduce the
whole, together with later researches in the same line, would take up
more space than can be spared in the present volume G. C. S.]

Eiess proved the existence of the secondary current in the following
manner; (Fog. Ann., XL VII, 55.)

Fig. 59.

Let A A, in fig. 59, be a

^ .Jv-v^<^.eNpv^--Y^P^^ ^ copper wire wound spirally

••'-■'''^^^'''^^I^EflW^^^^^^ about a glass tube and in-

troduced into the conduct-
ing circuit of a battery; A.
A consequently is the main
wire. A wider glass tube
is passed over the main
wire, and upon it the sec-
ondary wire B B is wound,
leaving its ends hanging
free. The ends of a third
spiral C D, also wound
upon a glass tube, are to be fastened at a and b.

The connection at h being severed, and the ends of the wire sepa-
rated a little, a spark is seen to pass at h when the battery, with a
sufficiently strong charge, is discharged through the main wire.

This spark is a proof of the existence of the secondary current. A
passage of electricity from the main to the secondary wire cannot take>
place if the secondary spiral be kept at a sufficient distance from the
ends of the glass tube on which it is wound.

A steel sewing needle placed in the glass tube of the spiral D,
which we will call the magnetizing spiral, will be magnetized by the
secondary current.

An electrical air thermometer inserted in the secondary circuit
indicates heat produced by the secondary current.

Figure 59 represents the form in which Kiess first arranged his
experiments. Afterwards (Pogg. Ann., L^ 9) he gave the spiral a
more convenient form.

In a disk of wood, consisting of three pieces glued together, the
diameter of which depends upon the size of the spiral to be formed,
concentric grooves are to be cut and made into a spiral, by joining
each circle with the following one by a curved groove ; the innermost

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

loo

Fig. 60.

' circle is joined to the second by the groove c d, (figure fiO,) the second

' to the third by e /, &c. In these

! grooves a copper wire about half a line

'. thick is so laid as to make a spiral.

' One end of the wire passes throug.h

I the disk at a, and along the under

' side to z. From a the wire coils out to

I c, from c to d, from d to e, /, &c. ; x

\ y is the other end of the wire thus

I wound in a flat spiral.

[ The disk is covered with a thin coat
of pitch before placing the wire upon
it.

The wire being fastened by the su-
perposition of a hot metallic plate, the

, spaces between the rin.t!;s of wire will

I be filled up with the pitch; a heavy heated plate laid on the disk will

I make the spiral perfectly level. This spiral is now blacked with coal

I and pressed upon another wooden disk to
get the marks for a second spiral, which ^s'^''-

[ must correspond with the first as nearly as
possible

I The disks are now fastened to glass sup-
ports, their planes being vertical. They

I are arranged upon the same stand opposite

leach other, and so that they can be ap-
proached and separated at pleasure. This
arrano;ement is represented in figure 61.

\ Another arrangement of the flat spiral,

[much more convenient for many purposes,
shown to me by Professor Eisenlohr, of Carlsruhe, is represented in
figure 62. One of the spirals is fastened on an upright glass sup-

Iport in a horizontal position. The second ^.^ ^,,

1 spiral is fastened in the same manner on a

[glass rod, which has no foot ; it is placed

lover the other, like the upper, over the

(lower condenser plate.

i The distance between the spirals can be

I changed by placing glass plates of difler-

|ent thicknesses between them. For greater

i distances pieces of varnished wood having

(any desired thickness are interposed.

, The ends of the wires are provided with

i screw clamps z and y, by means of which

'the spiral can be connected as may be de-
sired.

Placing y and z of the lower spiral from one to two lines apart, and
j separating the two spirals by a glass plate, a spark will be seen to
, pass between y and z on discharging ajar, sufficiently charged, through
' the upper spiral. The spark is produced by the secondary current.

836 EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

§ 57. Magnetizing hy the main current. — To avoid false conclusions
in regard to magnetizing by the secondary current, magnetizing by
the main current should first be properly investigated.

Such an investigation was first made by Savary. Riess repeated
Savary's experiments and obtained similar results. The following
are Riess' results. — (Pog. Ann. XLVII, 55.)

In the conducting circuit of the battery, consisting of 25 jars with
l.j square foot coating each, a spiral of platinum wire was placed ; 26 '
inches of this spiral were wound in 42 coils on a glass tube 3 inches
long. The ends of the wire not wound up were, together, 34 inches:
long.

In each experiment a new non-magnetic English sewing needle,L
13-9 lines long and 0.19 lines thick in the middle, was laid in the
spiral. After the discharge stroke had passed through the spiral thei
needle was magnetized. To test the strength of the magnetism iti
was brought to a certain distance from a compass needle two inches,
long, (in what manner this was done cannot be easily understood from
Eiess' description,) and the deflection produced in the latter observed.!

By increasing the charge of the battery, not only the strength but;
the polarity of the magnetism of the needle changed; as the following
table shows:

Quantity, 5 10 15 20 25 27 29 30 32 35

Deflection, 9° 14.5 15 10.3 6.5 — 2.5—7.5 — 8.5 2.3 11.5

It is seen that a stronger charge of the battery was not necessarily
followed by a stronger magnetism ; also, that the magnetism thusi
caused was not always such as might have been expected, according tof
Ampere's rule, (namely, that if we suppose the figure of a man to be
introduced into the circuit, the positive current entering at the feet
and passing out at the head, the figure, when it faces the needle, will
have the north pole on its left hand,) for an abnormal magnetizing of
the needle took place in all the deflections marked with the — sign.

In this series the strength of the magnetism of the needle at first
increased with the magnitude of the charge, then decreased until the
direction of the magnetism was reversed, and it was only after still
more powerful charges that the normal magnetism appeared again.

These experiments are a proof that the direction of the discharge
current cannot be deduced from the polarity of the needle.

With weaker charges the needle was normally magnetized ; abnormal
magnetism appeared with increased charges in fine needles only ;
coarse needles are always magnetized normally, although constantly!
increased charges produce in them an alternate decrease and increase
of strength of the magnetism.

§58. Magnetizing hy the secondary cury-ent. — This peculiarity in the
magnetism of steel needles occurs in like manner in the secondary
current. Magnetism produced by a secondary current will change in
strength and direction:

1. By increasing the charge.

2. By increasing the surface of the battery, the charge remaining
the same. The greater the surface, the stronger Riess found the mag-
netism of the needle ; the same quantity of electricity being distributed

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

337

r over a greater surface, it has a less density, and consequently a slower
I discharge, which is favorable to the production of magnetism.
[ 3. The order of the periods of decrease and increase, as well as that
fof the reversal of tlie magnetism, will he changed by an alteration in
'the secondary circuit, such as introducing wires of constantly increasing
length.

If the scciindary circuit remains metallic as before, but interrupted at
one place, so that the current has to pass with a spark, a very remark-
able influence is observed on the magnetic effect; often the magnetism
is in this way increased very greatly, sometimes it is weakened, and
again it is changed in direction. The strongest magnetization by the
secondary current, amounting nearly to saturation of the needle, has
been obtained in this manner.

4. A continued change in the strength, as well as a change in the
direction of the magnetism produced by the secondary spiral, takes
place when, cceteris paribus, the length of the conducting circuit of the
main spiral is continually increased.

The apparatus shown in figure 62 may be very conveniently used
in these experiments. The lower spiral may be taken for the secondary
circuit, and the magnetizing coil may be introduced between x and y
by screwing its ends in the clamps.

§ 59. Production of heat by the secondary current. — It has already
been mentioned that the secondary current produces thermal phenom-
ena ; Riess lias also investigated thoroughly the laws of the development
of heat by the lateral current. — (Pog. Ann., XLVII, 65.)

In the conducting circuit of the secondary spiral, a magnetic spiral
and an electrical air thermometer were introduced. The following
table contains the thermal and magnetic effects which the secondary
current produces when the surface and charge of the battery are
.changed. aS and q have the same signification's before.

Heating.

s.

Q-

Magnetism.

Observed.

Computed.

5

15

3.8

3.4

20

6.2

6.0

25

9.0

9.4

30

12.0

13.5

o

10

20

3.4

3.0

0.5

30

7.0

6.8

1.5

15

30

4.

4.5

1.5

20

30

3.5

3.4

4.0

25

30

2.5

2.7

2.3

40

4.4

4.8

— 0.6

5

20-

6.2

8.8

253

8.3

2.0

303

9.8

— 3. G

22 8

338

SECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

In the last column the deflections of the compass needle produced by
the magnetized needle are indicated as explained above. Where no i
deviation is indicated the magnetism was not perceptible.

As far as the last three observations, indicated -by *, the observed
temperatures harmonize very well with the formula

s

From all the observations (the tables given by Kiess contain a few v
more) the mean result for a was 0.075 ; the temperatures computed
with this co-ef&cient in the' above formula accord perfectly well with
the observed values. Hence the formula holds good for the tempera- 1
tures produced by the secondary current.

In the observations indicated by * the secondary circuit was inter- r
rupted, so that the current had to pass with a spark. This has a
very important influence (above mentioned) upon the magnetization, i
It is shown here, while the heating power is scarcely afiected — it being i
a little diminished.

When a Glerman silver wire, 78 lines long and half a line thick, was i
inserted in the main circuit the heating was less ; the co-efficient a,
which was found above equal to 0.075, was now 0.028.

As may be readily conceived, the quantity of electricity in the
secondary current is greater in proj^ortion as the portion of the main
spiral acting upon the lateral spiral is greater, other circumstances
being equal. In order to determine the amount of increase of the
secondary current thus produced, the secondary coil B B, (fig. 59,)
closed by the platinum wire of the thermometer, was slipped over the
straight prolongation of A A, and the temperature noted which was
produced in the secondary wire by the discharge of g = 20 in s = 5.
Then, in successive experiments, a different number of coils of the
main spiral was brought under the secondary spiral, and the same
quantity of electrifity discharged in the same manner. These experi-
ments gave the following results :

Length of straight

No. of coils.

Heating in the lateral

wire.

wire.

Lines.

134

1.85

102

24

4.9

63.4

53

7.6

24.8

82

11.5

101

14.0

The numbers of the last column are the mean of two series of ex-
periments, giving nearly the same results.

Since we know what elevation of temperature (1.85) is produced in
the secondary v/ire by the action of a straight piece of the main wire
134 lines long, we can compute the heat produced by the action of a
straight piece of the main wire 102, 634, &c., lines long, and thus

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 339

|ke are able to determine how much heat is produced by the action of
24, 53, 82, 101 coils of the main wire. This gives —

With 24 coils 3.5

53 '' 6.r

82 " 11.2

101 " 14.0

t Thus the heat produced is very nearly proportional to the number
bf acting coils of the main wire ; hence it follows that tJie quan-
tity of electricity generated by the conducting circuit of the battery in a
Secondary wire is proportional to the length of the acting part of the
hircuit wire, other circumstances being equal.

\ If over the same main spiral A A the same lateral spiral be wound,
first with its coils parallel to those of the main spiral, and then with
more open coils, so that the main spiral acts always in the direction
bf its entire length, but at first upon a long part of the lateral wire
running parallel with it, and then on a shorter and more open part ;
|in the latter case the action evidently is as much less as the direction
bf the coils in the spirals differs, or the closer the lateral spiral is in
^lomparison with the main spiral.

\ All the coils used for these experiments were wound to the right.
{[t is not a matter of indifterence, as far as regards the strength of the
Secondary current, whether the lateral spiral is wound in the same or
fthe opposite direction to that of the main spiral. Upon a main spiral
Wound to the right, eight inches of copper wire were wound first to
the right, then to the left, with the result :

Heat.

Secondary spiral to the right 15.4

" " to the left.. 2.7

§ 60. Action of the mainioire on diff'trent secondary ivires. — A piece,
\{a b,) 26 inches long, of the same wire which* formed the main wire
-■was stretched out straight ; parallel with it a piece (c d) of the lateral
wire was stretched. The whole secondary circuit, in which the elec-
trical thermometer was inserted, consisted of copper and iron wire.
The piece c d of the secondary circuit, lying opposite a b, being a
part of the iron or of the copper wire which forms the lateral circuit,
with equal charges of the battery the temperature of the thermometer
is the same, provided the iron and copper wire have the same diameter
and the space between a b and c d ia the same.

j Therefore, if the resistance to conduction of the whole secondary
► [circuit remains unchanged, it is perfectly indifferent for the strength
!of the secondary current whether a better or worse conducting piece
■of wire is exposed to the action of the main wire.
j It is impossible for me to understand clearly the arrangement of the
(experiments relating to this matter from the description given. —
!(Pog. Ann., L, 3.)

§ 61. Decrease of the secondary current in proportion to the distance
^from the main loire. — To find how the action on the secondary wire
^decreases with the distance from the main wire, the piece running
[parallel must have a great length, because otherwise, at tolerably

340 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS,

great distances, the heating of the lateral wire will be too little to he
observed.

Ri( ss stretched two copper wires 10 feet 6 inches long parallel to
each other, (Pog- Ann., L, 7.) One of them was connected by means
of copper wires 6 feet long with the circuit of the battery ; the ends
of the other were connected by similar wires -with the platinum wire
of the thermometer. By changing the distance between the axes of
the parallel wires the thermometer showed that the current generated
hy the straight 2'>cirt of the conducting circuit of the battery in the paral-
lel wire decreoses in the proportion in ivhich the distarice of the axis of
the ivires ivicreases, provided the distance of the wires at the start is
not too small ; for if the wires approach within a certain limit the
heat produced increases in a less proportion than the distances
decrease.

To obtain somewhat elevated temperatures by the secondary cur-
rent, wires of great length must be used, and the management of
these is very troublesome when they have to be stretched straight.
Hence, when only the generation of an intense secondary current is
desired, it is greatly preferable to wind the wires in a flat spiral, as
already described, (144.)

The current which is excited by the main spiral in the secondary, is
weaker the further the spirals are apart ; but it is easily seen that be-
tween the strength of the current and the distance between the spirals
there cannot be a simple proportion, for any one part of the circuit of
the main spiral excites a current, not only in the curved part lying
nearest to it and on the same side, but also in the more remote part of
the curve, on the opposite side; the latter is indeed weaker, but it acts
against the former and diminishes its effect. But the proportion of
the two opposite currents evidently changes when the distance of the
spirals is changed. If the starting point is from very small distances
of the two spirals the strength of the secondary current at first increases
more slowly, but at a greater distance far more rapidly than the in-
crease of the distance of the spirals.

§ 62. Action of adjoining closed conductors on the generation of the
secondary cwrewi. —Riess extended on the floor of a room three copper
wires, 0.55 line thick and 10 ft. 6 in. long, parallel to each other,
(Pog Ann., L, 12,) these wires being denoted respectively by A, B,
and C. The axial distance between A and B was 4.45 lines, that of
B and C 2.35 lines.

The wire A was inserted in the conducting circuit of a battery ; from
the ends of the wire C copper wires six feet long led to the thermom-
eter, and consequently the secondary wire C included the thermometer
in its circuit. When B was removed the unit of charge gave a tem-
perature indication of 0.135 ; B being restored to its place nearly the
same temperature was indicated ; but when the ends of B were joined
by a copper wire 14 feet long only 0.094 was the temperature indi-
cated. Hence it follows that —

The current generated in a secondary wire hy the conducting wire
of a battery remains unchanged lohen a wire with free ends lies betiueen
the tiuo ivires ; but the current is diminished if the intermediate wire is
closed upon itself.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 341

It is not essential that the wire B should lie between A and C in
!»rder to weaken the current in C, which is generated by the discharge
:iiirrent traversing A. B may lie beyond C or beyond A ; the lateral
Current excited in C by the main current of A will be always weaker
Vhen B is closed, or when a secondary current exists in B, than when
'his is not the case. Hence, ihe main wire of a hattery having generated
■frical currents in iiuo secondary loires near each other, each of the tioo

mdary currents is weaker than it luould have been were the other not
resent.

Two flat spirals, six inches in diameter, each formed of copper wire
;3 feet long and 0.55 lines thick, were placed 10 lines apart. The
hermometer of the secondary spiral indicated a considerable heat (42
livision of the scale) when the quantity of electricity (20) accumulated
n four jars was discharged through the main spiral. But when,
inder otherwise equal circumstances, the same quantity of electricity
yas discharged, while a copper disk 6 inches 10 lines in diameter and
' ?>o lines thick was interposed between the spirals^ the thermometer

the secondary spiral showed no sensible heat.

This remarkable effect of the copper plate evidently depends upon
he good conduction which it offers to the current.

The interposed plate should be a poor conductor to allow a sensible
: at to be developed in the secondary spiral. In proportion as the
anacity for conduction in the interposed plate decreases the current
'u the secondary spiral increases.

Interposing plates were used successively as follows : 1. A sheet of
'in foil 0.01 line thick. 2. One of 0.0168 line thick. 3. Both to-
gether. 4. A sheet of imitation silver paper. These sheets were

niped between glass plates and placed one line distant from the main
uiral. When the two spirals were two and a half lines apart the fol-
lowing temperatures were obtained in the secondary spiral for the unit
•f charge :

Without interposed plate 0.56

Interposed plate of imitation silver paper 0.57

" " thin tin foil 0.087

" '' thick " 0.056

" " both sheets tin foil 0.034

Comparing the last three indications with the corresponding thick-
lesses of the interposed sheets of tin foil, we find that the strength of
he current in the secondary loire is inversely proportional to the thick-
£88 of the interposed metallic plate.

The same result was obtained by repeating the experiments in the
ame manner but at greater distances.

§ 63. Action of interposed insidating plates upon the formation of the
\econdary current, — Faraday has ascribed a specific inductive capacity
^o the different insulators in relation to statical electricity, so that
hrougli a glass or shellac plate induction should be much stronger
-ban through air.

!i The origin of the secondary current can only be satisfactorily ex-
plained by the generation of electricity by induction ; and, in his view,
ve should expect currents of difierent strengths, if plates of different

342 EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. |

insulating substances were interposed between the main and secondary
spirals.

If solid insulators possess a greater specific inductive capacity than
air a well marked distinction should be made by means of the secondary
current between solid conductors and insulators of electricity. Thus,
while conductors, used as interposed plates, diminish the secondary
current obtained through the medium of the air, insulators, applied
as interposed plates, should increase the current.

In spite of careful investigation Riess was unable to find such an
increase of the secondary current by the interposition of insulating ;
plates, such as glass, shellac, &c. The use of these plates changes in no i
respect the force of the secondary current, which was found just as i
great as though air only had been between the sj)irals. — (Pog. Ann.,
L, 18.)

§ 64. Action of the conducting wire of a battery upon itself. — We have '
seen that no electrical current can be generated by induction in a wire •
with free ends. The conducting wire of an electrical battery is sucli I
a wire, but since its free ends pass into broad metallic surfaces, ^:
allowing the accumulation of opposite electricities, it is necessary to
examine experimentally whether one part of the wire may not have
an inductive action on another part.

Riess sought to solve this question in the following manner:
(Pog. Ann., L, 19.)

The two spirals, one of which had served hitherto as the main, the
other as the secondary spiral, were placed at a short distance apart, '
and joined so as to form a single conducting wire, so that, on being
introduced into the circuit of the battery, the discharge current had to
pass through both.

In one case the outer end of one of the spirals was united with the cen-
tral end of the other in such a way that when the discharge current in
the one spiral passed from the middle to the outside, it had to pass from
the middle to the outside in the other also ; and, consequently, the
discharge traversed the two spirals in the same direction.

The outer end of one spiral was then joined to the outer end of the
other, so that the current which traversed the one from the middle
to the outside went from the outside to the middle in the other ; the
discharge thus traversing the two spirals in opposite directions.

Now, if one part of the conducting circuit can act upon another, '
each spiral in the first case must cause in the other a current in the
same direction as the main current, but in the last mode of connecting
the spirals a current opposed to the main current ; and hence, in the
last case the force of the current, cceteris paribus, should be weaker
than in the first.

The thermometer being introduced into the circuit along with the
combined spirals, it indicated, under like circumstances, perfectly
equal temperature, in whichever manner the spirals were united ; hence
it follows, that in the discharge of a battery no part of the conducting
wire acts inductively upon another part.

§ 65. Retardation of the electrical discharge by conductors near the
conducting wire of a battery. — Riess introduced into the conducting

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 343

circuit of a battery (Pog. Ann._, XLIX, 393) a copper wire 13 feet long
and 0.55 line thick, which was coiled in a flat spiral on a wooden disk
six inches in diameter, covered with pitch and supported by a glass
flag, as represented by fig. 61. A series of experiments, made with
fthe circuit thus arranged, gave —

h = 0.43 -^
s •

( A copper plate 6 inches 10 lines in diameter and 0.33 line thick
[was placed parallel to the main spiral, at a distance of 2| lines. It
gave —

* 2

h = 0.41 ^

s '

Then a secondary spiral exactly like the main spiral was placed
parallel to it, the ends being in perfect metallic contact. This arrange-
ment gave —

h = 0.42 -^

s '

Hence, neither the copper disk nor the secondary spiral had a sensi-
ble influence on the temperature of the conducting circuit. Instead
of the perfect metallic closure, a less perfect closure of the secondary
spiral was made ; that is, the ends of the copper wire were connected
jby a platinum wire 138 lines long and 0.023 in. radius. The secondary
! spiral thus closed being placed 5 lines distant from the main spiral
I the result was —

' h = 0.32-^;

s

t

I when placed at the distance of only 2| lines from the main spiral the

I result was —

h = 0.27 A
s

The secondary spiral, closed by a German silver wire 460 lines
i long and one-twelfth line diameter, and placed 2^ lines from the main
spiral, gave —

h = 0.17 A
s

The secondary spiral, closed by a glass tube filled with water 9
inches long, gave —

^ = 0.39 A

s

We will now subject these results to a somewhat closer examination.
The current in the conducting circuit, as seen above, generates a

344 RECENT PEOGRESS IN PHYSICS.

current both in the copper plate and in the secondary spiral, hut the
current in the secondary spiral cannot induce a current in the main
spiral, because the latter is not closed by metal, the two coatings of
the jars being separated by glass. The only possible influence of the
current in the secondary spiral upon that ii^the main spiral is some
retardation of the discharge. ,

Now, if the closure of the secondary spiral is more perfect than that t
of the main spiral, the current of the former will pass more rapidly
than that of the latter, and on that account no reaction of the second-
ary spiral can take place upon the main spiral ; hence, with a more 3|
perfect closure of the secondary spiral, the temperature in the conduct- -
ing circuit is found very little less than when no secondary spiral is *
present.

With an imperfect metallic closure of tbe secondary spiral the
secondary current has a longer duration, and then the discharge cur- -
rent in the main wire finds, during its whole course, the secondary ■
wire traversed by a current passing in the same direction, and we ;
must assume that this is the cause of the retardation of the main cur- •
rent, which is indicated by the diminished temperature ; by imperfect ^
closure of the secondary spiral the temperature in the main current
was reduced in the proportion of 0,43 to 0.17.

By inserting a tube of water into the secondary spiral the tempera-
ture again increases almost as much as though no secondary spiral
had been present, which is well explained by the fact that, with very
imperfect closure of the spiral, no sensible secondary current is gen-
erated.

The circumstance that, with quite perfect as well as with very im-
perfect closure of the secondary spiral, the influence on the main wire
is less than for a moderately good closure, leads us to expect that,
when the secondary spiral is closed by constantly increasing lengths
of thin wire, at first the temperature of the main circuit will decrease,
that, with a given length of the introduced wire, the influence of the
secondary spiral will become a maximum, and then decrease again, and
that, therelbre, the elevation of temperature of the conducting circuit
of the main spiral will again increase when the wire by which the
secondary spiral is closed is lengthened.

This was verified by experiments which Riess made. — (Pog. Ann.,
LI, 177.)

Representing by 100 the temperature observed in the thermometre
introduced in the conducting circuit of the main spiral, the secondary
spiral being closed by a short thick copper wire, the results given
by the insertion of a German silver wire 0.1517 line diameter and of
different lengths, are as follows:

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

345

Length of wire.

Temperature.

4.8

feet.

70

9.8

55

19.7

52

29.6

48

39.4

52

88.7

61

138.

66

286.

76

582.

87

Open.

100

It is seen from tliis table how very rapidly at first the temperature
)f the circuit of the main spiral decreases with increasing length of
jjrerman silver wire inserted in the circuit of the secondary spiral, and
>hat a minimum is reached when the 1 ngth of the introduced wire is
a9.6 Paris feet, in which case tlie heatiog eiFect is only 48 per cent, of
phat wliich is observed with perfect closure of the secondary spiral.
jVVhen the length of the wire exceeds 29.6 feet the temperature grad-
ually increases again ; and by lengthening the wire to 582 feet the
temperature rises to 87 per cent, of that originally obtained.

A metallic closed circuit near the conducting loire of an electrical
\attery acts retardingly on the discharge of the battery in proportion to
he length of its closing loire. The circuit of the secondary loire being
\)rogreisively prolonged its action successively increases, attains a maxi-
num, and then decreases.

The changes which the temperature in the main wire undergoes by
engthening the secondary wire, obey the law indicated by the last
'able, whether the charge of the battery be stronger or weaker ; with
iitronger charges, as well as with weaker, the "retarding effect of the
Secondary wire attains a maximum when the secondary spiral is closed
py 29.6 feet of the above-mentioned German silver wire ; and then the
[.emperature in the main wire is 48 per cent, of that which would
[lave been observed with an equal charge if the secondary spiral had
fi perfect metallic closure ; but as soon as the conducting circuit of
Ihe main wire is lengthened by the introduction of a thin wire the
jourse of the retarding effect of the lateral wire changes.
' In the main conductor a platinum wire 7 inches 5 lines long and
).023 line radius was introduced, and the results in the following
:able were obtained ; the lateral spiral being closed by German silver
yire of different lengths :

Length of German

Temperature of

silver wire.

mam wire.

.0 feet

100

29.6 "

82

49.3 "

78

69. "

78

237. "

91

572. "

99

846 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

We see here that, on prolonging the main conductor, the maximum
effect of the secondary wire is not reached until a greater length of wire
has been introduced into the secondary spiral^ and moreover that the re-
tarding effect of the secondary wire is now much less. During the pre-
vious experiments the temperature of the main wire was reduced by
the maximum effect of the secondary spiral to 48 per cent.; now, the
maximum effect of the secondary spiral produces only a reduction to
78 per cent, of the temperature, which would have been observed either
without the secondary spiral or by one perfectly closed.

This is easy to explain. The secondary current is stronger in pro-
portion as the part of the main wire acting on the secondary wire is i
greater, and to the stronger secondary current we must also attribute
a greater reaction upon the discharge. The length of the main wire
was the same in both series of experiments, namely, 13 feet of copper '
wire, which acted upon the same length of the secondary wire. In i
the first series these 13 feet made by far the greatest part of the circuit i
of the battery ; in the second a platinum wire was introduced, whose re- '
tarding power was equal to a copper wire 568 feet long and 0.55 line
thick; consequently, in the last case, only about one-forty-fourth part
of the virtual length of the main wire acted upon the secondary spiral. I

Riess caused two other spiral disks to be made, each containing 53^
feet of copper wire two-thirds of a line in diameter. The large and
small spirals were introduced into the main circuit.

The small main spiral being now placed opposite the small secondary
spiral at a distance of 2 lines, the maximum retarding action of the i
secondary spiral took place when it was closed with 29.6 feet of Ger-
man silver wire. With this maximum effect the temperature of the
main circuit was 76 per cent, of that which was observed without the
lateral spiral, or when it was perfectly closed.

When the large secondary spiral was opposed to the large main
spiral at a distance of 2 lines, the maximum retarding action of the
secondary wire occurred when the latter was closed by 79 feet of Ger-
man silver wire, and in this case the temperature in the main wire was
reduced by the retarding action of the secondary spiral to 25 per cent.

Finally, the two secondary spirals, properly connected, being placed
opposite the two main spirals, then 138 feet of German silver wire had
to be introduced into the secondary circuit to obtain the maximum
retarding effect, and the temperature in the main wire was thereby
reduced to 20 per cent, of that which would have been observed with- '
out a lateral spiral. From these experiments it follows that —

The maximum effect of a secondary wire upon the electrical discharge
attained by lengthening the secondary circuit is as much greater as the
length of the main ivire acting on the secondary luire is greater. But,
at the same time, to attain this maximum, a proportionately longer circuit
is required for the secondary loire.

The length of the platinum wire in the air thermometer in these
experiments was 143.5 lines. This wire, which is very long in pro-
portion to the whole circuit, can never act inductively on the secondary
wire ; to make the longest possible part of the main wire act on the
secondary spiral, the wire in the thermometer must be shortened, by
which means the action of the main wire is, indeed, increased, but on
the other hand the sensibility of the thermometer is diminished.

EECENT PROGRESS IX PHYSICS.

347

Fis. 63.

Riess, in order to shorten the platinum wire -which closed the main
Spiral, used Berguet's metallic thermometer instead of the air ther-
mometer,

• A straight platinum wire 61.5 lines long and 0.04 line radius was
fastened immovably in the axis of a sensitive thermometric spiral,
similar to that represented in fig. 63, and intro-
duced into the circuit in a suitable manner. The
[instrument was of course placed under a bell-
glass. The platinum wire in the axis, on being
'heated by a discharge of the battery, commu-
•nicated its heat to the spiral ; the index then
liraversed a number of degrees, but soon returned
:to its first position, in consequence of the rapid
(cooling caused by the large volume of air in the
Jbell-glass.

I The experiments with the metallic thermometer
iteach nothing new, on which account no further mention need be made
lof them, though I could not leave this method of observing unnoticed.

I § 66. Direction of the secondary current.— -T^o investigate whether
;the direction of the lateral current changes with the distance of the
^secondary wire from the main wire, Riess used the following method.
'(Pog. Ann., LXXI, 351.)

Au insulator, which cannot be pierced by electricity, being placed

between the free ends of the secondary spiral, no secondary current

occurs. Nevertheless the electrical equilibrium of the secondary wire
[is destroyed by the act which would have produced the current, as the

following experiment shows :

I If we place between the free ends of the p.i„ ^4

[secondary spiral a thin cake ot resin, so

^that the two ends of the wire are opposed

[to each other, after the discharge of the

[battery by the main line, the two surfaces

[of the cake of resin may be distinguished

;from each other in the most decided man-

'ner. Peculiar electrical figures are pro-

'duced, which, in most cases, are brought

out by slightly breathing upon them. If
jit be desired to fix the figures, it is done,

as shown by Lichtenberg, by strewing the

surfaces with a mixture of flowers of sul-
iphur and minium. On one of the sur-
■ faces of the resin treated in this way there
'appears a red disk, with a red border, and beyond it a dark (unpow-
;dered) ring, surrounded by yellow rays. On the other surface yellow
'and red segments of circles are visible, embraced by a wide red ring.
The rays and the ring increase with the

strength of the electrical excitation; with
' very feeble excitation the rays of the first

figure are wanting, and a simple red disk
r remains, which, however, is sufficiently dis-
\ tinct from the second figure, in which the
I red ring may always be recognized.

Fig. 65.

FiR. 66.

348

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Each of these figures is composed of the two elementary forms
wliich Lichtenberg has distinguished as positive and negative, and
for this reason the direction of the secondary current cannot be de-
duced I'rom these figures.

In the ibllowing experiments the ends of the secondary spiral were
lengthened by copper wires, and a part of one formed a short, close
coil, wound to the right. In fig. 67 let x and y indicate the ends of
the secondary spiral to which the above-mentioned wires are attached. 1
To magnetize a steel needle the ends a and /? were
^'"■^'^* put in contact, and the needle was placed in the coil, 1

with its point toward m. To obtain the figures on j
the resin it was introduced between a and ^. The i
results contained in the following table were obtained i
with the small main and secondary spirals, consisting {
of 13 feet of copper wire, already mentioned.

In the main spiral the discharge current passed in i
the direction indicated by the arrow. The ibllowing »
table shows the polarity indicated by the needle when c
it lay in the coil pointing towards m.
A glass plate was interposed between the two spirals.

ffk OI-jP

Distance of
spirals.

Main wire.

Quantity of
electricity.

Polarity
at m.

Line.

5
10
10
30
30
30
30
30

N.

N.

Lengthened

N.

25

Lengthened

S.

N.

25
39.5

Lengthened

S.

s

It is seen that for the same direction of the main current the mag-
netism of the needle varies with the other circumstances, whence a
difference in the directions of the second-ary current might be deduced;
but the resin plate being interposed between a and /9, and the battery
discharged through the main spiral under all the circumstances given
in the table, fig. 65 was constantly formed on the side of the resin
plate turned toward the end of the wire /? — a proof that the direction
of the secondary current remained the same^ though the magnetism
of the needle was reversed.

Eiess used for producing the figure a small glass or copper plate,
both sides having been covered with a thin coating of pitch or resin.

A surface of resin once used must be heated over the flame of a
spirit lamp to melting before it can be employed again.

The direction of the secondary current, which, as already remarked,
could not be directly determined from the figures of the resin plate,
was ascertained in the following way : Two three-inch condensers
were separated by a thin plate of mica ; the lower one touched the

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 349

^d of the wire a ; the upper was so near the end /9 that, in dis-
[harging the hattery, a small bluish spark passed. After discharging
jlirough the main spiral the upper plate was removed and tested by
he electrometer. For a positive charge of the battery the condenser
ijlate, which touched the end /3, was found electro-negative. The
Jayed figure (fig. 65) is, therefore, always produced by the end charged
nth negative electricity ; and, consequently, the secondary current has
\lways the same direction as the main current,

' The experiment made by Riess for ascertaing the direction of the
ateral current by the decomposition of iodide of potassium i'ailed, as
|e did not succeed in producing the decomposition by the secondary
^irrent.— (Pog. Ann., XLVII, 74.)

i § 67. Defection of the magnetic needle hy frictional electricity. — The
ioils of a multiplier, used for producing a deflection of the magnetic
;:eedle by a current of frictional electricity, must be very well insulated,
liess has constructed such a multiplier (Pog. Ann., XL, 348) of a
jopper wire 105 feet long and one-sixth line in diameter, which,
lovered with three coats of silk and in 260 coils, formed 5 layers on
-eing wound upon a suitable frame. Before winding a length of the
/ire it was twice covered with shellac varnish, and the wrapping
mt on before the varnish was perfectly dry. Each layer was again
larnished after wrapping.

The cylindrical astatic needles belonging to this coil were 22 5 lines
png, 0.4 line in diameter, and 5 lines apart. The combined needles
ade one oscillation in 6.6 seconds.

One of the wire ends of such a multiplier being placed in conducting
nnexion with the conductor, the other with the cushion of the elec-
ical machine, a deflection of 10 to 20 degrees could be maintained
ly turning.
\ \ When it is desired to deflect the needle by the discharge current of
■he electrical battery the discharge of course must be retarded by the
iQsertion of bad conductors, such as moist strings, glass tubes filled
irith water, &c.

, The latest experiments made by Riess on this point (Pog. Ann.,
ILVII, 535) gave results showing that the deflection of a magnetic
ieedie by the wire which slowly discharges an electrical battery is
ndependent of the surface of the battery, provided a perfect discharge
'f the bat-tery takes place. It is therefore immaterial to the dtflec-
ion of the needle whether the same quantity of electricity is distri-
'•uted over one or over several jars.

I Faraday had attempted [Experimented Researches, 363, Pog. Ann.,
1:9) to compare the discharge current of the electrical battery Avith
,hat of a voltaic current. After obtaining a given deflection of the
inagnetic needle by discharging a battery he constructed a voltaic
')air, which, acting 3i seconds, produced the same deflection as the dis-
charge of the battery ; and he concluded that the quantity of electricity
'ielded by the pair was equal to that accumulated in the battery.

Riess justly remarks, that this conclusion is not well founded, be-
iiause the instantaneous action of the discharge current of the battery
)n the needle is essentially different from that of a galvanic current.

350

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

B^P^

I have reported Riess' researches without interrupting the course
the narration by speaking of what has been done by others on the sa
subject. Let us now turn to these labors.

§ 68. Knochenhauer' s researches on the current. — In a second article,
with the title ^^ Experiments on Latent Electricity^" {Versuche iiber
die gehundene,Elektricitdt, Pog. Ann., LVIII, 391,) Knochenhauer pre-
sents the law according to which the force of the secondary current
decreases when the distance from the main wire increases.

Riess has shown, as already mentioned, § 61, that the force of the
secondary current decreases in the same proportion in which the axial i '
distance of the secondary wire from that of the main wire increases.

Knochenhauer thinks this law is " evidently insufficient."

Starting, apparently, from the idea that the lateral current is a phe- 1
nomenon of induction, Knochenhauer attempts to apply here his law.*

That a law stating the relation between action and distance, adapted
to the case of spherical bodies only, in which all action can be consid-
ered as starting from a single point, cannot hold good for wires run-
ning parallel to each other does not stop Herr Knochenhauer. His
law has such an astonishing elasticity that, by barely changing the co-
efficient, it serves for the secondary current. In his opinion there sub-
sists between the force of the secondary clirrent (measured by the air
thermometer) and the distance of the wire the relation

6 = AaVnr~

in which 6 denotes the temperature of the thermometer in the second- ;
ary wire, and n the distance of the secondary from the main wire.

This n, however, is not the axial distance, but the distance of the
wire in the clear, in which he assumes three lines as unity ; hence
the magnitude of 7i has first to be computed from the axial distance
a given by Riess.

He first compares his formula with the results found by Riess. A
series of these observations he arranged in the following table, with
the values computed by his formula :

d.

6 observed.

e computed.

Difference.

Lines.

2.71

0.216

0.219

+ 0.003

6.78

0.145

0.143

— 0. 002

11.24

0.119

0.104

— 0. 015

16.01

0.081

0.079

— 0. 002

19.61

0.066

0.066

0.000

23.87

0.054

Q. 055

+ 0.001

In fact the values observed and those computed by the above form-
ula correspond sufficiently well by making A= 0.401, a= 0.489.
Indeed, the formula answers for very short distances, for which the
law of Riess, on evident grounds, is no longer applicable.

But does this accordance of Knochenhauer's formula with the observa-

*See Report of 1856.

EECENT PKOGEESS IN PHYSICS.

351

ions prove its correctness ? Certainly not. When there are two
onstants at our disposal it is easy to invent a whole mass of formulas
i/hich would serve just as well ; that is, they will accord with the few
liumbers observed within narrow limits, quite as closely as the limits
ire narrow. As a proof I propose

<y = A + 6 log. D ;
[he first best arbitrary formula that occurs to me. In this formula let
) denote the temperature of the secondary wire, D the axial distance
if the wires. Making A = 0.276, and b = 0.16, this formula will
{gree with Riess' observations as well as that of Knochenhauer ; as the
following table shows, in which the third vertical column contains
[he values computed by the above formula :

i
d.

e observed.

e computed.

Difference.

Lines.

2.71

0.216

0.207

— 0.003

6.78

0. 145

0.143

— 0.002

11.24

0.119

0. 107

— 0.012

16.01

0.081

0.084

+ 0.003

1 19.61

0. 0G6

0.069

+ 0.003

23.87

0.054

0.056

— 0. 002

I In spite of this harmony between observation and computation, this
I'ormula expresses just as little as Knochenhauer's, the law according
to which the force of the secondary current decreases with the distance
from the main wire.

Knochenhauer has himself made a series of experiments to confirm
is formula, and by which he would show that the magnitude of a
ijiepends upon the conducting capacity of the main circuit,, of the sec-
pndary circuit, &c. The description of the modus operandi of the
experiments, how the wires were extended, &c., is exceedingly obscure,
,and since, I think, I have proved the inaccuracy of his formula, a
further account of these experiments is unnecessary.

This memoir forms the introduction to liirther researches, which
■relate to the secondary current and currents in branched circuits.
The following are the titles of the memoir on these subjects:

On the lateral current in divided conducting wires of the battery. —
j(Pog. Ann,. LX— LXX, 235.)

I On the electrical current in divided conducting wires of the battery.
|(Pog. Ann., LXI, 55.)

I On the diminution of the main current with divided conducting
[wires of the battery. — (Pog. Ann., LXII, 353.)

i On the relation of the formulas which determine the development
[of heat by the electrical and the galvanic current. — (Pog. Ann, , LXII,
207.)

Experiments on the electrical secondary current. — (Pog. Ann.,
|LXIV, 64, and Pog. Ann., LXVI, 235.)

; Determination of the compensating length of wire without the air
[thermometer.— (Pog. Ann., LXVII, 327.)

II

352 EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Solution of the problems recently proposed on branclied galvaniiL
currents, for the discharge current of the electrical battery, — (Poo-
Ann., LXVIII, 136.)

On the ratio of tension in the discharge current of the electrica
battery.— (Pog. Ann., LXIX, 11.)

On the comparison of the electrical formula with the galvanic—
(Pog. Ann., LXIX, 421.)

The experiments mentioned in these memoirs are very badly del
scribed ; the discussions inflated, confused, and full of difficult formulas!
which do not lead to simple, clear, and well founded results.

Since the design of this report is to present to the reader the prO'
gress of physics, and not to weary him with criticisms on fruitlesr
labors, I need say no more of Knochenhauer's memoir on the latera;
current and kindred subjects. The criticism on the abovementioned
paper suffices to justify me in this respect.

§ 69. Charging current of the electrical battery. — In Fig. 68 let o
and b denote two electrical batteries, both of which are insulated (
The exterior coatings of both batteries being in metallic connexion,]
suppose a to be charged and b to remain uncharged.

Fig. 68. Now, if any suitable discharger,

^____^„«-^ fitted to the knob of the jar b, ap-i

^feo^— — f% preaches the knob of the charged

^' Y jar, a spark passes, the jar a be-

^^p '^^ comes partially discharged, a part

!« I ill °^ *^® ^®' ^'^ positive electricity;

fr^|S^ |_^ ^ which was accumulated on the in-

I ;:^ |: ; J ner coating of a, passes with a

<^„M.,. i..,EJfS! j^,„i ^.„„lt::S Tr;ai> spark to the inner coating of b,

j II while a corresponding quantity of

' negative electricity passes without

a s[)ark, by the cunducting connexion of the outer coatings, from a
tob.

In this manner a is partly discharged and b charged ; the charge
of b is not gradual, as in ordinary charging of jars, but very rapid.
Dove terms the current which, passing from the outer coating of a
to that of b, charges the latter battery, the charging current, (Ladungs-'
Strom,) and he has compared the action of this current with the action
of the discharge current already amply investigated. He found the^
following results, (Pog. Ann,, LXIV, 81 :)

1. Induction. In the outer connecting wire a cylindrical induction
spiral was introduced, surrounded by an exterior secondary spiral.
The effects were the same as in the discharge stroke.

2. Sparks. The outer connecting wire having been interrupted, a
brilliant white spark, with a loud report, appeared at the place of
external interruption the instant tlie spark at the inner conducting
wire passed. A moist thread being introduced into the inner con-
ducting wire, the spark assumes a redish yellow color and has a feeble
report ; the same change is also indicated in the place of interruption
of the outer connecting wire, in which there is no moist thread.

Dove found further that the "charging current" produced in the :
same manner as the discharge current. i'i

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 353

3. Galvanic effects.

4. Magnetization of steel.

5. Physiological effects.

6. Penetration of bad conductors, and

7. Evolution of heat.

The needle of a galvanometer inserted in the connecting wire of
he outer coatings is not affected when the inner coatings are brouo^ht
Into metallic contact with a white and loudly sounding spark, without
the interposition of a moist thread ; but it is sensibly affected when a
noist thread is introduced there. The magnetizing of a steel needle
placed in a spiral was produced with great effect in the first case,
iVithout interposition,) but feebly in the second case, (with inter-
oosition.^

I The contents of one of Dove's papers in Poggendorf's Annalen,
'LIV, 305,) bearing the title, " On the current induced in magnetiz-
ing iron by means of frictional electricity, 'i will have to be presented
later, because this subject is closely related to the corresponding
l^ffects of the galvanic current.

I § 70. HankeVs researches on magnetizing steel needles hy the discharge
\parkof the electrical battery. — Hankel has published two large me-
fnoirs on this subject, (Pog. Ann., LXV, 537, LXIX, 321.) In the
idrst he speaks of Savary's observations, and then proceeds to the
ilescription of his own experiments, the resultsof which are as follows:
1. When the discharge stroke passes through a spiral in which a
iteel needle is placed, a certain minimum of charge is generally ne-
jessary to magnetize the needle. Calling the polarity which it receives
)y the discliarge stroke of this minimum, normal, the needle will be-
lome abnormally magnetic by gradually increasing discharges, and
^gain normal by still stronger charges, &c. The abnormal magnet-
iism appears with strong charges of the battery, as the pieces of wire
introduced into the circuit of the battery are longer in proportion as
ihe charge is stronger.

i When in addition to the spiral and the pieces of the conducting
iircuit remaining constant in all the experiments, an iron wire 34
jieet long and 0.1 line in diameter was introduced, abnormal magnet-
ism was obtained with a charge 70 (measured by sparks of the measur-
ing jar) ; on inserting 82 feet of the same wire a charge of 120 was
Required, and a wire of 154 feet required a charge of 160.
I 2. When a battery of more, and then one of fewer jars was used
ipith the same conducting circuit, the battery of the less number of
jars produced the abnormal period with a less charge. '

; An iron wire of 202 feet having been introduced, a charge of 20
ffith two jars produced abnormal magnetization, while by using 5
ars it was only obtained with a charge of 70, and with 9 jars, even
Ihe quantity of electricity 230, did not produce abnormal magnetiza-
ion.

I If with gradually increasing charges, the change from normal to
.bnormal magnetization is not always obtained, these periods are
'levertheless not wholly wanting ; for an increase and decrease of the
Itrength of the normal magnetism is observed, and the minima of the
' 23 s

354 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS-

normal magnetization correspond in this case to the abnormal
periods.

Hankel applied himself to the explanation of this phenomenon,
and he lays down the following as the fundamental idea :

" It is known from Faraday's researches, that a current at its com-
mencement generates an opposite current in a neighboring conductor ;
at its cessation, on the other hand, a second current which passes in
the same direction with the original one. The electrical sparks must
act in both ways, upon a steel needle placed near the wires, as the
needle is perpendicular to the direction of the current, the planes of i
the currents produced in the needle are likewise perpendicular to the j
length of the needle, and the magnetism of the needle will be inii
opposite directions according as we consider it to be excited by the i
action of the beginning or by the cessation of the spark. But the two«
instants of beginning and end of electrical sparks follow each other sos
rapidly, that their separate? effects cannot be measured; -hence magnet-;)
ization is the result of both of these influences." j

This is essentially the fundamental idea to which Wrede (SerzeZm' Ji
Jahreshericht, deutsch von Wohler, 20ster Jahrgang, S. 119,) soughtll
to reduce the alternate normal and abnormal magnetism of steel needles '
by the discharge stroke in main as well as in secondary wires.

As already intimated by Kiess, {Dove's Repertorium, VI, 218,) this
mode cf explanation belongs yet to the domain of conjecture. It is
possible that this is the natural process in magnetizing steel needles
loj the discharge stroke, but it is by no means proved.

On the whole this explanation seems very plausible; but the deduc-
tion of the particulars of the phenomenon is not at all convincing,
although Hankel expresses himself quite at length upon the subject.
We will do well to consider this as still an open question.

Riess remarks, in the place above cited in Dove's Repertorium, that
it is better, and more for the furtherance of science, openly to confess
the deficiencies of our knowledge, than to attempt to aid it with half
explanation and to cover up its defects ; and in this connexion he
quotes a passage from Franklin's letters, which should be taken to
heart by every scientific man :

*^I find a frank acknowledgment of one's ignorance is not only the
easiest way to get rid of a difficulty, but the likeliest way to obtaini
information ; I think it an honest policy."

In the second memoir Hankel treats of the following points :

1. The number and magnitude of the magnetizing periods, men-
tioned in the first memoir.

2. The action of different spirals.

3. The action of the conducting wire upon itself.

4. The influence of the thickness of the needles.

5. The influence of the surface of the battery.

6. The changes of the alternations by obstacles interposed.

7. Special influence of particular metals^ totally distinct from theii
conducting capacity.

We will consider these points in succession :

1. As a magnetizing spiral, a spiral of silver wire was employee
with coils so close that the introduced needle covered 31 of them,

I

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

ODD

,he charge of the battery was regularly increased by 1 spark of the
leasuring jar, and at each discharge a new needle was magnetized ;
|ie strength of the magnetism communicated was then determined by
le time which the needle required to make a given number of vibra-
lons. A copper wire 2.63 metres long and 1.2966 millimetre diam-
j;er was used in the circuit together with the spiral.
j In this manner Hankel made a series of experiments whose results
[-e represented graphically in fig. 69. The abscissas are '-ronortional

i the strengths of the battery charges, the ordinates to the strengths
{ the corresponding magnetization. The ordinates above the hori-
jintal correspond to normal, those below to abnormal magnetism.

This curve does not produce the impression of regularity ; it seems
ither to mask some sort of a law by irregularities which cannot be
)rrected by computation. But in such cases the law may be repre-
ifnted by averages obtained from numerous experiments.

Hankel says he repeated these experiments with the shortest circuits,
) determine the position of the abnormal, or equally significant weak
prmal periods ; from all his experiments with the same kind of needle,
ting the same battery of nine jars, he found these periods to occur in
ie following charges: 3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 16, 18, 21, 23, 26, 29, 32,
p, 40.

Hankel says, " we see that the change in the polarity returns regu-
■rly ;" but I can find in this series of numbers nothing very clearly
^pressed, and least of all regularity. He says, moreover, that this regu-

i'rity might have been more clearly represented by the introduction
fractions, but he purposely avoided them, as he had not measured
em exactly, but only estimated them.

I Now, what does this mean ? Does not the above series of numbers
^present the means of numerous experiments made under the same
iindition ? If this is the case, why hesitate to introduce fractions ?
^ean values are generally computed, not observed.
, To render it possible for the reader to judge of the value of his re-
filts, Hankel should have told how he arrived at the series 3, 6, 9,

E, &c. ; and he should have communicated the separate series of
periments in order that one might ascertain how far the separate
ries differed from the mean on account of accidental disturbances.

356

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

2. The seiles of experiments represented by fig. 69, were compared
Avitli two others in which the spirahs were so moved in the directio n o
their length that the needle covered only 28 coils in the second, andf
only IH in the third series. The general result was, that the periods I
were longer in proportion as the needles covered fewer coils.

3. As mentioned above, Kiess announced the proposition that, in dis- '
charging a ])attery, no part of the circuit acts inductively upon itself.
Hankel contests this proposition. He comes to the opposite conclu-
sion from the following experiments :

A cop])er spiral of tolerably large diameter was surrounded by a
similar spiral, the two being so arranged that the discharge could at
pleasure be made to pass through the two, either in the same or in
opposite directions.* A magnetizing spiral was also introduced into the i
circuit The march of the magnetizing periods for both arrangements I
being then compared they did not harmonize, and hence Hankel i
inferied that there was necessarily an interference of effects.

Even if it be conceded that Keiss' experiments are not sufficient td :
establish hie proposition, those of Hankel are still less fitted to over- 1
throw it ; for, in the phenomena of magnetism by the discharge stroke, ;
our knowledge of what is regular or what may be accidental is not :

such as to permit a safe conclusion to be drawn from the want of coin-
cidence of two such series of experiments.

The differences which occur in magnetizing steel needles, accordiug

* Hankel gives the lliickness of tlie wire 'o the xTJT^iT^'o ''^ ^ millimetre, which appears to
mc an unnecessary accuracy, considering the other relations of this series of experiments.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. S57

18 a long wire introduced into the circuit is extended in a straight
line or wound into a spiral, will be considered helow under No 6.

4. It appears in general, as Hankel infers from his experiments,
;hat with coarse needles the phenomena do not change ; the anomalous
periods occur only with stronger charges, and also appear to have lost
n strength.

5. New experiments on the influence of the surface of the battery,
iorresponding to the previous ones, indicated that a diminution of the
lurface brought about the anomalous periods with decreasing charges,
)ut so shortened them .that, with a certain size of the battery, they
;eased to appear as abnormal magnetization ; weak and strong normal
)eriod8 only were then observed.

6. Besides the short insertion, with which the results in fig. 69 were
)btained, Hankel made experiments with inserted copperwires extended
n a straight line 0.23 millimetre diameter^ and varying between 0.375
md 96.4 metres in length. The curves 1 and 2, fig. 70, represent
he results which he obtained with the wires 12 and then 96.4 metres
ong. These curves seem to indicate that with longer insertions the
eparate small periods disappear, until at last only a large normal pe-
iod is observed with stronger magnetism, after which follows a very
)road negative period, (from 30 to 100,) in which, however, very weak
nagnetism is observed.

With reference to the disappearance of the smaller periods, these
jxperiments do not admit, in my opinion, of any certain conclusion,
because the charge of the battery was increased from 5 to 5 for the
onger insertions, and from 2 to 2 for the medium, while they increased
[nly by 1 in the shortest. Where is the guarantee that in the longer
*^ires single periods are not passed over ? Hankel preserves silence
n this point.

In relation to the influence of the coils, Hankel compares the result
epresented by the second curve of fig. 70 with those which are given by
03 metres of the same wire wound into 70 coils. While, with straight
/ires, a normal period extends to 30, and is then followed by a long
legative weak one, he observed, with coiled wires, 3 normal and 3 ab-
ormal })eriods.

When 26 metres of a very thick (30.76 square millimetres in sec-
ion) quadrangular copper wire were inserted, no change was seen in
he succession of the periods, but they were generally feebler. When,
b addition, 113 metres of a round (1.3 millimetre) wire were inserted,
jtretclied in a straight line, the results represented in the third curve
|f fig. 70 were obtained. Nearly all reversions disappeared^ the needles
leemed but i'eebly magnetic.

When 94 metres of the thick wire were coiled into a spiral and
pserted in the circuit, the results presented in the fourth curve of
ig. 70 were obtained. The enfeebling of the magnetism appeared
.ere in the thick coiled wires still more strikingly than in that ex-
pended at length.

The influence of the coiling upon the thick and the thin copjier wires is
•vidently very different ; yet, says Hankel, (page 336 of his 2d Memoir,)
he influence is the same in both cases. The discussion, by means of
f/hich he seeks to prove this, is incomprehensible to me ; indeed, I
annot call Hankel's reasoning in general clear and precise.

358 EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

7. The insertion of iron wires yields remarkable phenomena, pro-
ducing anomalous periods of very considerable strength. Hankel
found them particularly striking with thick, long iron wires. While
a thick copper wire greatly weakens the magnetism, the latter is con-
siderably streagthened by a thick iron wire. On introducing an iron
wire 1.27 millimetre diameter and 131 metres longit gave, forinstance,
the result for a charge 6, a normal maximum 11 ; for a charge 36, an
anomalous magnetism of the strength 9|, taking for unity the mag-
netizing strength adopted in constructing the above curves.

§ 71. Leyden jars of thick glass. — Winter, of Vienna, constructs
Leyden jars which have a much greater striking distance than those'
in general use, and he accomplishes this by using vessels with very
thick sides, (over 1 line,) and by leaving a very wide uncoated border.
Spontaneous discharge is prevented by the width of the uncoatedi
border, and perforation of the glass is prevented by its thickness. In.
such jars the tension of the free electricity on the inner coating cam
reach a far higher degree than in the ordinary thin jars, in which, if
a spontaneous discharge does not occur, a fracture of the glass is to
be feared.

The mutual induction of opposite electricities of the two coatings,;
in consequence of the great thickness of the glass, is less perfect than
with thinner glass. With the same quantity of coating, and with
the same density of the free electricity on the inner coating, less elec-
tricity will be accumulated in thick glass jars than in those of thin
glass ; in general, therefore, the quantity of electricity which a thicb
glass jar can receive is less, but the tension of the free electricity on
the inner coating, and consequently the striking distance, is greater.'
It is to be expected that with the greater striking distance, other
effects of the discharge will also suffer a change. All effects of the
discharge stroke, in which it is chiefly desirable that a great quantity
of electricity should be sent through a body, can be produced better
with large, thin glass jars, but where the force of the shock is the
main object, thick glass jars serve the purpose better; hence it ap-
peared to me probable that the perforation of glass plates should take!
place much more easily with thick jars than with ordinary thin ones.
Trial perfectly sustained my supposition. Formerly, in using large,,
thin jars, a great number of revolutions of the machine were necessary
to charge the battery sufficiently for the perforation of glass, and eveci
then the experiment did not always succeed satisfactorily ; now, 2C
revolutions of a very moderate electrical machine suffice to charge a
thick glass jar so as to produce this effect with certainty.

Fi?. 71. The thickness of the glass jar, fig. 71, is about 1 line

each coating has a surface of about 9 square decimetres,
and the uncoated border is 22 centimetres in height.

I have not studied carefully the influence of the thick-
ness of the glass upon the effects of the discharge stroke.
and only make this notice in order to draw the attentioD
of other physicists to the point. It is much to be wishec
that Eiess would take up this subject, since he has already
_ labored in this field with such generally acknowledgec
good results.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 359

I § T2. Electrical figures. — By means of electricity, figures can be
produced on the surface of different bodies, which are either directly
ivisible or are rendered visible by strewing dust^ or by breathing upon
;ieni. Riess has made an extensive series of experiments (Pog. Ann.,
LXIX, l"! on these phenomena, the best known of which are the
Lichtenberg figures, and he has determined very accurately the cir-
cumstances under which these figures and images appear.
j Riess divides them into primary electrical delineations, or such as
are caused by difi'erent parts on the surface of poorly conducting sub-
stances being placed in unlike electrical condition, and becoming
visible on being sprinkled with powders ; and

[ Secondary electrical delineations, which are produced when the film
pf foreign matter which covers nearly all bodies is affected by the
electrical discharge ; in this case the figures are made to appear by
breathing upon the plate, or else visible marks may appear imme-
diately, if the surface of the body itself has been in any way attacked.
I We shall first consider the figures made visible by sprinkling pow-
|ier upon them.

1 § 73. Dust figures. — To produce the Lichtenberg figures Riess used
square copper plates, covered on one or both sides with a coat of pitch
ubout i line thick.

j The formation of dust figures (Lichtenberg figures) is a consequence
pf the electroscopic action of electrified spots on the resinous surface
upon the powder itself, electrified by shaking in the bag through
which it is sifted. A mixture of flour of sulphur and minium is best
jfor this purpose. Positively electrified places on the plate are covered
iwith the sulphur, and therefore appear yellow ; the minium, on the
contrary, is collected on the negative spots, which thus ap])ear red.
I The spark having passed over the pitch surface, so that a dust
l^gure would have appeared if it had been immediately dusted, no
figure will be formed if the pitch surface is first exposed for a second
^o the flame of a spirit lamp, by which the electricity is removed from
^he plate.

. The simplest mode of producing dust figures is the following, used
also by Riess : A copper plate, covered on one side only with pitch, is
•touched by a conductor, and an insulated metallic point is placed on
"the pitch surface. The upper end of the point being touched by the
knob of B. -positively charged jar, remove the insulated point, and on
[powdering with the above described mixture a round yellow sun, with
idense rays, will appear.

i The experiment being conducted in the same manner with a nega-
tively charged jar, a perfectly red circular disk will appear.
: This diversity in the appearance of the figures is well known ; but
^Riess has directed attention to another remarkable distinction, namely,
[that the positive figure is much larger than the negative, though
iequally strong charges have been used.

[ With a given 'positive charge of the jar the yellow sun had (as a
imean of 3 experiments) a diameter of 16.1 millimetres.

With an equally strong negative charge the red disk had a diame-
ter (also a mean of 3 experiments) of 5.8 millimetres.

The diameters of the negative and positive figures, produced by

360 RECENT PROGEESS IN PHYSICS.

equally strong charges of the jar, are, consequently, in the ratio of 1
to 2.77, or the surfaces covered by them are as 1 to 7.67.

A plate, coated on both sides with pitch, on being brought between
the insulated point and the conducting wire, and subjected to the
above process, the positive figure appears on one side and the negative
on the other.

When the jar was charged with negative electricity, the disk ap-
peared above and the sun below, but the j-ellow sun in this case was;
only 2.2 times as large as the red disk.

The cause ot the negative figures being relatively greater than in
the previous experiment was owing to the excess of negative elec-
tricity, which was transmitted t© the upper surface ; in fact, a sun ap-j
peared on the upper side, which was 3.3 times as great as the redt
disk on the under side, when a positively charged jar was used in a
similar experiment.

Riess has shown that the dust figures appear only when the passage-
of electricity on the insulating plate is accompanied by a discontinuous!
discbarge, which may be recognized generally by a peculiar hissing.;
By holding the j3itched plate to the knob of a charged jar a sparki
passes with a crashing noise ; a discontinuous discharge thus takeS'
place, and a figure appears on dusting; but the plate being placed
at such a distance from the knob of the jar that a spark cannot pass,
some electricity still gradually goes over, producing a continuous dis-
charge. If the plate is dusted after standing from 30 to 70 minutes
opposite the knob of the jar, a number of round spots appear irregu-
larly distributed — yellow, if the jar had a positive, red, if a negative^
charge. These spots exhibit no trace of rays ; they are perfectly alike
in size and form for both electricities.

Hence, electrical dust figures aiDpear when electricity is transmitted hy
a discontinuous discharge to an insulathig plate.

Upon this fact Riess founds a very ingenious explanation of the
diff'erence between positive and negative dust figures. In a discon-
tinuous discharge passing over the surface of an insulator the con-
densed atmosphere, which covers the surface of all bodies, is forcibly
penetrated, and a part of the stratum, containing vapor of water, if
projected wiih violence against the surface of the body.

But Faraday has shown that, if moist air impinges forcibly againsl
any body, the latter is negatively electrified; thus, then, in this case''
the surface of the plate becomes negatively electrified in consequencf
of the discharge which takes place over the surface; the remaining
electricity of this discharge then has only to spread over a negatively
electrified insulating surface.

The surface being charged with negative electricity, it spreads froir
the point over an insulating surface already negative ; the circum
stances, therefore, not being favorable for the distribution of the nega-
tive electricity the figure cannot become enlarged, and a roundec
form is assumed.

The jar being positively charged, the remainder of the positive
charge spreads from the point over an insulating surface negatively

* The experiments of Faraday referred to, scarcely allow of such a conclusion. — (Se'
Report for 1856, p. 364.) G. C. S.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 361

electrified by the discontinuous discharge ; the fact that electricity is
already present on the surface, acting attractingly on that issuing
from the point, occasions a greater diffusion of the positive electricity ;
but the circumstance that the positive electricity spreading forth is
i[>artially neutralized by the presence of the negative, causes the radia-
ting form of the positive dust figure.

i To sustain this view^ Riess produced a modification of the phenome-
iQon in rarified air. On a plate covered with pitch, placed under a
glass receiver, was placed the blunt end of a wire, which received a
3park from a jar charged with positive electricity. With the whole
pressure of the air the sun appeared on dusting the plate ; but when
|the air was exhausted to 27^ lines pressure, only an irregular yellow
^peck appeared ; negative electricity behaved in like manner. The
diflerence between the positive and negative figures was no longer
pbserved at this degree of rarifaction.

I When the air was exhausted to 2 or 3 lines the end of the wire left
j&nly a point, which, luith positive electricity ivas red, with negative^
yellow ; and consequently caused, not by the transmission of electricity
to the plate, but by induction.

: The penetration of the stratum of air surrounding the plate is,
therefore, the origin of dust figures.

I § 74. Dust images. — If a stamp (as simple as possible, having a few
^•aised letters, and for this reason printing types will answer) be
blaced on a single pitch plate, (so Riess calls a copper disk coated on
Sne side only with pitch,) and electricity be communicated to the
^tamp, it acts inductively on the pitch surface, the latter becoming
electrified at the spot where touched ; and this electricity is opposite
Ito that of the stamp, for on removing it and powdering the plate with
the mixture mentioned already, a red image of the letter is obtained,
[if the stamp is positive ; a yellow one, if negative ; for the flcur of
Sulphur attaches itself to the positive,, the minium powder to the nega-
jtive spots of the resin plate.

[ The above described phenomenon underwent numerous modifica-
jtions, according to the manner in which the stamp was electrified.
\ The stamp being touched by the knob of a charged Ley den jar,
and then removed in an insulated condition, leaves au image as above
indicated ; it is, however, very little covered with dust ; while the
ground, by the formation of dust figures becomes yellow, if the letter
is red, or red, if the letter is yellow.

The stamp being removed uninsulated, the dust figure changes,
^hereby the clearness of the image also suffers.

By electrifying too strongly, an actual passage of electricity in part
occurs at the place where the stamp touches the plate^ so that a dust
image appears, partly red and partly yellow.

I Then we have at the same time a dust image and dust figures. To
(obtain the dust image clearly, the formation of the dust figures must
be avoided, which Riess accomplished in various ways.
! The knob of a Leyden jar was exchanged for a four-inch ball, and
rthe jar fastened horizontally, so that the pitch plate and the stamp
jcould be placed under the ball ; the stem of the stamp was half an inch
from the ball. By the inductive action of the ball the end of the stamp

362 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

touching the pitch was electrified like the ball : too strong an accumu-
lation of electricity was prevented by providing the stamp with a point.
After the stamp had been exposed from 20 to 30 minutes to the induc-
tive action of the ball, a clear dust image appeared without any dust
figure, but irregular spots ajjpeared in the ground, which were not of
the color of the image.

Similar results were obtained when the stamp was placed for several
hours in connexion with one pole of a powerful dry pile, while the i
electricity of the other pole was conducted off as completely as possible, t

In these cases, in which generally no dust figures appeared, it was i
indifferent whether the stamp was insulated or not, on its removal.

The color of the irregular spots showed that they originated in the i
electricity actually passing from the stamp to the pitch plate at the :
places which admitted of a slight current. To avoid these, more ready
passage to a conducting medium must be furnished for this electricity, ,
as in the case when the dust images were produced in rarified air. i
Kiess obtained in this manner the most perfect dust images.

The dust Jigtii^es and images, just considered, are, according to Riess, ;
primary electrical delineations ; the figures and images now to be con- i
sidered are secondary electrical delineations.

§ 75. Electrical breath figures. — The surface of glass, mica, &c., .
over which an electrical discharge stroke has passed, gives, by breathing
upon it, peculiar ramified figures, which stand out from the surface
obscured by the breath with a mirror-like lustre.

The breath figure indicates the path taken by the electrical dis-
charge over the surface ; and its form difiers therefore, according to
the nature of this surface. On metal, it appears as a round disk ; on
resin, as serpentine stripes ; on mica, as fine, many times ramified
lines.

The breath figure is independent upon the hind of electricity em-
ployed.

That these figures do not originate in the electricity which continues
to adhere to the surface is established by the fact that they are seen
on metallic surfaces, on which they appear after the breathing, as
distinct circles, surrounded by more or less obscure rings ; the breath i
figures also appear a long time after the discharge stroke has passed i
over the surface, or after the surface has been passed over the flame of >
a spirit lamp. Hence, the breath figures cannot be owing to adhering ■
electricity ; they are to he ascribed to a change of surface ivhich the sub-
stance used has been subjected to, by the electrical discharge.

On a fresh surface of mica, that is on such as is obtained by a fresh
cleavage, breath figures do not appear. This depends upon a peculiar i
property of fresh mica surface, which Riess has described in the 67th
volume of Poggendorf's Annalen, page 354.

A clean plate of mica being breathed on, or held over evaporating
water, the result is, as with all bodies, that it will be covered with a
rapidly disappearing stratum of water, consisting of very small drops,
which are not in contact with each other.

But when the mica has received a fresh surface by cleavage, it re-
mains perfectly clear, shining and transparent after being breathed on.

This phenomenon is by no means owing to the fresh surface not

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 363

condensing vapor of water, for the breath causes it to show the colors
'of thin plates ; it is consequently covered with a coherent stratum of
'water.

' A drop of water which stands at rest on an old surface of mica at
■once spreads on a fresh surface, and completely covers it. Hence, a
:mica surface made by cleavage possesses, in consequence of its great
[purity, so great an attraction for the vapor of water that it condenses
'the water into a coherent stratum, while, had the mica been exposed
'a long-time to the air, it would have condensed the water in separate
'drops.

While an old surface of mica is an excellent insulator of electricity
a, fresh surface discharges an electroscope in a few seconds ; it acts
Ihygroscopically by condensing the vapor of water of the atmosphere
into a coherent stratum, which conducts electricity.

This remarkable peculiarity of fresh mica is preserved but a short
ftime in the air ; in a few days it may be clouded by breathing upon it.
f Very powerful electrical discharges produce not only a change in
lithe film of foreign matter covering the body, but they alter the surface
lof the body itself. This is the cause of the traces noticed in § 41, occa-
isioned by the discharge spark on glass and mica (electrical colored
istripes) and of the rings of Priestley , which occur when numerous dis-
charges of a battery take place between a point and a polished metallic
jSurface, whereby oxidation of the metal forms many colored concentric
circles.

§76. Karsten's Electrical Figures. — The analogy which Eiess de-
tecribes in the VI volume of Dove's Repertorium der Pliysih, between
lelectrical breath figures and the images of Moser, occasioned Karsten
rto examine whether such images could not be obtained in the electrical
way.

I For this purpose he placed (Pog. Ann., LVII, 492) a coin on a
imirror, resting on a discharging metal plate, and caused sparks to
Istrike from the conductor of the machine upon the coin, thence passing
!lto the metal plate, (around the edge of the glass.) After 100 revo-
llutions of the machine the coin was removed ; the glass plate seemed
jwhoUy unchanged, but when breathed upon the image of the coin
^appeared distinctly.

' Besides the memoir cited, Karsten has published two others, in
;Poggeudorf 's Annalen, (LVIII, 115, and LX, 1,) on electrical images,
•but as he has not succeeded in discovering their true nature, it is un-
jnecessary to go further into the details of these memoirs ; and the more,
jsince Riess, as we shall see, has correctly ascertained the condition for
^producing electrical images. The report upon Riess' researches will
^therefore suffice to bring the facts at least, to the knowledge of the
(reader.

We must, however, briefly notice, by the way, Karsten's last treatise
in one particular. In the beginning he adduces many experiments
'which have been made to explain the cause of Moser's images ; besides
iMoser's own theory, he presents the opinion of Hunt, Know, Fizeau,
'Daguerre, Masson and Moore. Why is the excellent work of Waideles
fon this subject ignored ? it appears in the first half of the 59th vol-
■ume of Poggendorf 's Annalen, and after these images had been the

364 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

occasion of numerous theoretical extravaganzas, brought us back to
the basis of a rational treatment of the subject. Could Karsten not
have known of this work in drawing up the papers in the 60th volume
of the Annalen f

The explanation which Karsten gives of Moser's images is altogether
inadmissible and may be easily refuted. He thinks that, because similar
images can be produced by the aid of electricity, Moser's images must
be of electrical origin. He thinks that ' ' if two bodies, differing in any
respect from each other, come in contact, an electrical current is pro-
duced!" and that this is the cause of Moser's images.

The generation of an electrical current by the contact of two hetero-
geneous bodies, which Karsten seems to intimate in this passage, will
not be granted by the most zealous of the adherents of the contact
theory ; but granting even the existence of such a current, it could
not produce any image, as the researches of Kiess prove.

That electrical tension alone, without repeated discharges between
the body and the plate, is not sufficient to produce electrical images
has been shown by Know in a paper "On electrical figures and ther-
mography," (Pog. Ann., LXI, 569,) in which he has proved the
untenableness of Karsten's view as to the electrical origin of Moser's
images.

The rest of the contents of Know's memoir will be mentioned sub-
sequently in the proper place.

§ 77. Electrical breath images. — Eiess placed a metal stamp on a
shining pitch surface, and upon the stamp a small metal weight con-
nected by a silver wire with the knob of the spark micrometer, receiving
electricity directly from the conductor of the machine, while the other
knob of the spark micrometer, one-half line from the first, was in con-
ducting connexion with the ground.

The machine being now turned, electricity accumulates upon the
first knob of the micrometer and upon the stamp, until a discharge
takes place by the passage of a spark between the two knobs ; con-
tinued turning will charge and discharge the stamp anew. The
discharges follow more rapidly the closer the knobs of the spark
micrometer are together.

After several revolutions of the machine the stamp may be removed,
the plate breathed upon, when a shining image of the stamp shows
itself on the dull ground.

It is indifferent for the success of this experiment which electricity
is used.

Such images may also be produced on glass and mica, but on these
substances they are often imperfect.

The simple breath image, Riess says, in caused by repeated electri-
cal discharges taking place in opposite directions between the model
and the insulating plate. The electricity communicated to the model
passes over to the plate, then back to the model, when the latter is
discharged by the spark micrometer ; thus a motion of the same kind
of electricity arises, first downward and thus upward. Since the dis-
charges between a bad and a good conductor are never perfect, elec-
tricity, both of the kind used and the opposite kind, remain upon the

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 365

iiisiilating plates, which are therefore in the condition to produce dust
■figures, oiten even dust images.

; By simply eltctritying the stamp, the arrangement being the same
las for producing dust images, no breath image appears. The alter-
nate charge and discharge of the stamp are essentially necessary for
ithe formation of these images.

I By laying a plate of mica on a pitch plate, and placing a metal
"stamp on this^ a double discharge of the same kind of electricity takes
'place in the same direction in electrifying the stamp, namely, from
the stamp to the upper surface of the mica, and from the under sur-
'face of the mica to the pitch plate. When a spark is communicated
to the stamp from a positively charged jar, the pitch surface, when
Sdusted, shows a yellow image of the stamp, surrounded by positive
dust figures. If, therefore, in this arrangement of the stamp alternate
■charges and discharges are brought about, the conditions for forming
Manifold breath images are fulfilled.

i A pitch surface being covered with a mica plate and a stamp placed
bn it, the latter was charged and discharged by the spark micrometer.
After twenty revolutions the upper surface of the mica showed a per-
fect breath image, but the under surfaces and that of the pitch pre-
isented a most imperfect one.

I These images are so frequently imperfect because pitch and mica
jadhere closely together in consequence of the electricity remaining
after each discharge and subsequent discharges is conveyed to places
'which lie scattered beyond the image surface ; but a metallic plate
being substituted for the pitch plate, a perfect breath image is ob-
tained on the upper and lower surfaces of the mica and on the metallic
teurtace.

I The visibility of the breath images is to be explained, according to
fRiess, by the fact that the surfaces are freed by electrical discharges
Jirom the film of foreign matter with which they are generally covered ;
iand he has even proved such a cleansing of the surface by images on
[metal. On a perfectly insulating mica surface Iliess produced a breath
iimage, and the place where the image appeared conducted as well as
!a fresh surface of mica, thus showing that it had been freed from the
letratum covering this spot.

; In most cases breath images are produced by such a cleansing
action, but they can be excited also by soiling the plate.
i On a fresh mica surface an obscure image of a stamp was obtained
jpn a shining ground. On an old surface, which electrified by forty
fTevolutions, gave a bright breath image; one hundred revolutions
ij)roduced a dull image.

I The various kinds of dull breath images depend upon the condition
lof the plate used and of the stamp, and also upon the strength of the
ielectricity ; the clear images appear more frequently only because
jfioiled plates and the least possible electricity are generally used,
I The origin of the breath images, like that of the breath figures, is
ito be ascribed to a change which the electrical discharge produces in
'the stratum covering the plate, and consists in an increase or diminu-
ition of this stratum, according to circumstances.
' A spark thrown upon a metallic surface injures it when perfectly

366 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

clean, but leaves it unchanged if it is soiled or tarnished. Thisistlie
case, in forming breath images on metals. A very small number of dis-
charges having passed between a metallic surface and one of m'ca
covering it, the intermitting discharge begins in the foreign stratum
on the surface of the metal, and the metal remains uninjured ; but
when the stratum is destroyed, and the breath image is produced, and
the discharges are continued, the latter then begin on the metal itself,
which is thus changed. Such images, appearing without breathing,
and representing some parts of the stamp in brownish colors, Riess
produced on silver with from fifty to sixty revolutions.

§ 78. Electrolytic images. — If the blunt point of a platinum needle
be placed on a paper moistened with a solution of iodide of potassium,
and lying on a metallic plate connected with the ground, a brown
spot will appear under the point if the needle is electrified positively,
but there will be no spot if it be negatively electrified. Using positive
and negative electricity one after the other in any order, the coloring
remains even when the quantity of negative electricity far exceeds
that of the positive.

This fact explains the electrolytic images, which Riess has invented
for proving the correctness of the view presented above, on the forma-
tion of breath images by alternating discharges.

A piece of card paper, moistened on one surface with a solution of
iodide of potassium, was laid on a metallic plate connected with the
ground, and then covered with a plate of mica. A stamp was placed on
the mica, and, being loaded with a weight of 2 to 14 ounces, was con-
nected with the spark micrometer, whose knobs were \ a line asunder.
After twenty revolutions of the machine, positive electricity continuing
to pass between the knobs, a very sharp image appeared on the paper
in which the letters of the stamp appeared with a brown color.

The explanation of this phenomenon, according to the above, is easy.
As in breath images, the stamp being charged with positive electricity,
it passes from the lower surface of the mica to the metal plate, and
thence through the moist paper ; by this passage of the -j- ^^ f o the
metal plate the iodide of potassium is decomposed ; as soon as a dis-
charge takes place between the knobs of the spark micrometer, an op-
posite current sets in between the metal plate and the mica ; the -{- E
now returns to the mica, and the — E through the moist disk to the
metal. While the -f- E goes to the metal the iodide of potassium is
decomposed, and this eft'ect is not destroyed by the discharge in the
opposite direction.

It is to be remarked that the passage of the -\- E from the mica to
the metal takes place gradually, while the discharge in the opposite
direction happens instantaneously.

The same experiment being repeated in the same manner with — E,
no image is obtained, but only irregular brown spots.

This also may be easily explained ; the negative electricity goes
gradually to the metallic plate, while the passage in the opposite di-
rection is instantaneous ; thus, a greater quantity of positive elec-
tricity returns at once to the metal plate, and passes more readily to
such points as lie beyond the image surface.

To obtain an image with negative electricity, care has only to be

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

367

Itaten that the quantity of -|- E which returns on the discharge between
the knobs to the metal plate, shall be less, which is attained bj bring-
ing the knobs of the spark micrometer closer together.

SECTION FOURTH.

ELECTRICAL SPARK AND BRUSH.

§ 79. Faraday's researches on the spark and brush. — Without going
into the theoretical disquisition, mentioned in another place,* which
iFaraday has given upon the spark and brush, T will present here only
the most important facts which he has obtained in his experiments
Jupon these phenomena of light. — (Pog. Ann., XL VII and XL VIII.)
I In order to compare the resistance which different gases presented
ito the passage of sparks, with the corresponding resistance of the air,
'Faraday used an apparatus, a sketch
"of which is represented in fig. 72 Fig. 72.

Two small knobs, s and S, connected
with the conductor of an electrical
■machine, were placed opposite to two
larger knobs, I and L, in conducting
-connexion with the ground. The
diameter of the balls was as follows:

iBall s 0.93 of an inch.

Ball^ 0.96 "

Ball 1 2.02 "

iBallZ 1.95 "

;

c

(

V

j9

^

I The constant interval v between s
and I was 0.62 of an inch ; the inter-
(val w between S and L was variable.
I It would have been better if the
itwo small balls s and IS had been
perfectly equal in size, and I and L
,al80 equal; much more reliable con-
clusions could then have been drawn
from these experiments.

The two balls 5 and I were placed
in a receiver, which could be exhaust-
jUdand then filled with dilferent gases.

' The receiver being filled with air under the pressure of the atmos-
;phere, the sparks passed alternately at u and v, when the intervals at
■u were between 0.6 and 0.79 inches. When the interval at u was less
jthan 0.6 the sparks always passed here, but if it was greater than
;0.79 the sparks then always passed at v.

See § 24 in the Report for 1856.

368

KECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Similar results were obtained when other gases were in the receiver
under the atmospheric pressure. There were two limits for the in-
terval at w, between which the spark passed at one time at u, at
another at v; the interval at u being less than the least of these lim-
iting numbers, the spark passed always at u, but being greater than
the greatest of these numbers it always took place at v. The follow-
ing table indicates the limits at u for different gases, v having the
constant value of 0.62 inch :

Air, s and S

Oxj'gen, s and S

Nitrogen, s and S.

Hydrogen, s and S

Carbonic acid, s and S...

Olefiant gas, s and S

Coal gas; s and S

Muriatic acid gas, s and S

Smallest.

0.60
0.59
0.41
0.50
0. 55
0.59
0.30
0. 25
0. 56
0.5B
0.64
0.69
0. 37
0.47
0.89
0.67

Greatest.

0.79
0.68
0.60
0.52
0.69
0.70
0.44
0.30
0.72
0.60
0.86
0.77
0.61
0.58
1.32
0.75

Mean.

0.695
0. 635
0. 505
0.510
0.615
0.645
0. 370
0. 275
0. 640
0. 590
0.750
0. 730
0, 490
0. 525
1.105
0. 720

A similar series of experiments gave for-

Smallest.

Greatest.

Mean.

Hydrogen i I

Carbonic acid.. >sandS-|--

Olefiant gas ) (

0.23
0.51
0.66

0.57
1.05
1.27

0.400
0. 780
0. 965

which does not coincide very well with the former results, a proof that
these numbers do not afford sufficient grounds for forming a conclu-i,

sion.

That within certain limits of distance at u the spark takes place
alternately at u or v, and consequently that there is not a single per-
manent value of 10 for each gas, over which the spark always happens
at V, but under always at u, depends upon accidents (such as particles
of dust floating in the air) of which we can give no account.

If at one of the intervals a spark once passed there was generally a
strong tendency in it to appear at the same interval again.

It is a remarkable circumstance that the range of distance u should
be much less when s and S are negative than when these balls are

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

369

psitive. This is exhibited in the following table, drawn from the
ixmer experiments. The range was —

In air

oxygen

nitrogen

hydrogen

carbonic acid

olefiant gas

coal gas

muriatic acid gas.

s and S.

0.19

0.09

0.19

0.02

0.13

0.11

0.14

0. 05

0.16

0. 02

0.22

0. 08

0.24

0. 12

0.43

0.03

[Althoiigh, as Faraday himself remarks, these numbers require con-
sierable correction,, the general result is striking and the differences
i several cases very great.
It appears clearly from these experiments that different gases have
Bt equal capacities for insulation. Considering the mean values of
t (for positive charges of * and S,) we perceive that a stratum 0.62 of
a inch of —

Oxygen
Nitrogen
Hydrogen
Carbonic acid
Olefiant gas
Coal gas
Muriatic acid gras

insulates as well as a stratum
of air, whose thicknes is

0.505
0.615
0.370
0.640
0.750
0.490
1.105

tat is, an electrical discharge passes as easily through a stratum of
ar 0.370 of an inch thick, as through one of hydrogen of 0.62 of an
ich ; an electrical spark penetrates a stratum of air 1. 105 inch thick as
elsily as one of 0.62 of an inch of muriatic acid gas; an electrical
s|ark passes with decidedly more ease through oxygen, hydrogen, and
cal gas than through an equal stratum of air ; but muriatic acid
§s and olefiant gas present a decidedly greater resistance to the trans-
Eission of the spark than an equal thickness of air does.

iSimilar results were obtained from later but less reliable experi-
rents.— (Pog. Ann., XLYIII, 281.)

iThe mean values of w are not equal with positive and negative

trges of S and s ; for many gases u has a greater mean value with
ositive charge of S and s than with a negative; for other gases it
i<the reverse; but to draw the conclusion from these experiments that
r|iny gases more readily allow the negative and others the positive
(^charge through them, seems to me unwarranted, because the differ-
, elces of the above table in this respect are within the limit of errors

q observation.
. fThus, according to the table given above, the mean value of w with
, positive charge of s and ^ is, for —

' 24 s

370 RECENT PROGEESS IN PHYSICS.

Hydrogen , 0.37

Carbonic acid , 0.64

Olefiant gas 0.75

while Faraday obtained from a subsequent series of experiments, sim-
ilarly arranged, the following values:

Hydrogen , 0.40

Carbonic acid 0.78

Olefiant gas 0.96

Evidently the corresponding values of m, obtained by positive charges i
of s and S , and which should be exactly equal, differ as much from i
each other as the corresponding values for the positive and negative •■'
charges of s and S; from which it appears that we are justified in assign- i
ing no great value to these differences. But there is a further reason <
for ascribing these differences to errors of observation, arising from
the fact that when air is in the receiver, and the spark accordingly takes ;
l)lace throughair, the positive and negative mean values for u are found <
unequal, namely: with s and S positive u =z 0.695 ; with s and 8 >.
negative u = 0.635. These differences can be ascribed only to acci- i
dental disturbances, which produce the errors of observation ; for why
should the spark, with a positive charge of s and S, pass more
easily through the air at v, and with a negative charge, more easily
at u, also through the air? Air being in the receiver, and + and —
charges imparted to s and 8, the values for u would be nearly identi- ^
cal, unless the errors of observation were too considerable,

Faraday himself does not consider these experiments decisive in this
respect, but brings forward some facts which seem to indicate some
such difference between the positiveand the negative discharge; making
w =: 0.8 of an inch, and filling the receiver with muriatic acid gas,
the discharge always took place, with a positive discharge of s and S,
at u, through air, but with a negative charge of s and S at v, through
the muriatic acid gas.

It also appeared that when the conductor was connected only with
the muriatic acid gas apparatus the discharge occurred more readily '
with a negative discharge of the small ball s than with a positive ; for )
in the latter case much of the electricity passed off as brush discharge ;
through the air from the connecting wire ; but in the fl^rmer case it '
allseemed to go through the muriaticacid. — (Pog. Ann., XLVII, 287.)

§ 80. Unequal striking distances of positive and negative discharge.—
Many known phenomena coincide in showing that positive and nega-
tive discharges do not take place with equal facility. When a small
ball, connected with the conductor and thus made inductive, is placed ■
opposite a larger one, which is uninsulated, a spark is obtained twice «
as long, the conductor being charged positively, as when negatively i
charged.

Faraday has closely investigated this phenomenon, and obtained
the following facts :

He passed the discharges between two balls of the respective diame-
ters of 2 inches and 0.25 of an inch. The larger ball being connected I

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

371

ritb the conductor, and thus made inductive, there appeared with a
lositive conductor — ■

parks alone up to an interval of 0.49 in.

^legative brush, from the small ball alone, when the inter-
val was greater than ,. 0.52 '•

"With a negative conductor —

Iparks alone up to an interval of 1.15 "

Positive brush, from the small ball alone, when the interval

I was greater than 1.G5 •"

I Between these limits he obtained sparks and brushes mixed.
* The balls were then exchanged, the small ball being connected with
jhe conductor, and the large one uninsulated. The result with a
ijositive conductor was —

Sparks alone to an interval of. 0.4 in.

f^egative brush alone, when the interval was greater than.. 0.44 "
i From these experiments it follows that —

! 1. Longer sparks are obtained when tlie small ball is positively
[ilectrified.

I 2. Longer sparks are obtained when the large ball is the inducing,
Lnd the small one th" inducteous ball.

! When the small ball discharges electricity in the form of brushes,
Ihey are much more numerous, and each one seems to carry ofi'.much
less electrical force when the discharged electricity is negative than
pirhen positive.

I This appears to indicate that a small ball requires a greater tension
for discharging when positive than when negative.
\ To illustrate this important point, Faraday arranged an apparatus,
hpresented in fig. 73. A fork. A, carrying a large and a Fi?. 73.
f^mall ball, was connected with the conductor of a machine ;
ft perfectly similar fork, B, was connected with a discharg-
ing train ; the small ball on each fork was placed opposite
Lihe larger one on the other. The intervals at n and were
?qual. The conductor being negative, the discharge al-
[ways happened at n, which is not surprising, because the
liegative charge of the small inducing ball at n is always
Wronger than the positive charge of the small inductions
iball at 0. But had the discharge taken place at o with a
Ijositive cl large of the conductor, it would have appeared
[that the weak negative charge of the small inducteous
Iball discharges with greater facility than the far stronger
positive charge of the small inducing ball at n, which
jwould have been a decisive proof of the more facile dis-
icharge of negative electricity. But such a decisive result
jthe experiments did not give ; when the intervals at n and
:0 were 0,9 of an inch, or 0.6, the discharge always took
place at n, whether the conductor was positive or negative.

The interval n being made 0.79 and 0.58 of an inch, if the con-
ductor was positive, the discharge at both w and was about equal,
}jUt if negative, the discharges mostly happened at n, which signified,

S72 RECENT 'PROGEESS IN PHYSICS.

evidently, that the small ball discharged in the negative state some- '
what mure easily than in the positive, yet their result is not perfectly)
decisive,

A contrivance, similar to that of fig. 73, was placed inside a glass i
vessel, which conld be filled with different gases. With equal inter- i
vals at n and o, Faraday obtained quite decided results for carbonic ;|
acid. When the conductor was positive the discharge took place i
mostly at o, when negative always at n ; here, then, the negative dis- r
charge was decidedly the more easy, and in coal gas the preponderance i
{•f the negative discharge was just as decided. In air and in oxygen r:
the greater facility of the negative discharge appeared -somewhat .1'
doubtful ; in nitrogen and in hydrogen there appeared some probability vj
of an opposite relation.

Belli has made experiments, from which it follows that negative i
electricity escapes more easily into air than positive. — (Pog. Ann,
XXXV, 73.)

After fastening a quadrant electrometer on a horizontal insulated 1
conductor and electrifying it 'positively, he found, as a mean of three :■'
experiments, that the electrometer required a period of ten minutes *
to sink from 20° to 10° ; but with negative electricity only 4.5
minutes were re(][uired.

§ 81. Sparks in different gases. — The phenomena attendant on sparks
in different gases have been often observed and described. Faraday
has made experiments on this subject also, and describes them in the
twelfth series of his Experimental Kesearches. — (Pog. Ann. XLVII,
536.)

The gases were under the pressure of the atmosphere ; the sparks
passed between brass balls.

" In air," says Faraday, " the sparks have that intense light and
bluish color which are so well known, and often have iaint or dark
parts in their course, when the quantity of electricity passing is not
great,

" In nitrogen they are very beautiful, having the same general ap-
pearance as in air, but have decidedly more color, of a bluish or purple
character, and, as I thought, were remarkably sonorous.

"In oxygen the sparks were whiter than in air or nitrogen, and I
think not so brilliant.

"In hydrogen they had a very fine crimson color" — "very little
sound was produced in this gas."

" In carhcnic acid gas the color was similar to that of the spark in
air, but with a little green in it. The sparks were remarkably irregu-
lar in form, more so than in common air.

" In muriatic acid gas the spark was nearly white. It was always
bright throughout, never presenting those dark spots which happen in
air, nitrogen^ and other gases.

"In coal gas the spark was sometimes green, sometimes red, and
occasionally one part was green and another red ; black parts also
occurred very suddenly in the line of the spark."

Sparks may be obtained in media, which are far denser than air —
as in oil of turpentine, olive oil, resin, glass, spermaceti, water, &c.

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 373

§ 82. The electrical brush. — The most important facts which Fara-
day has obtained in reference to the brush are the following,) Poff.
Ann.,XLVII:)

'' The brush and spark gradually pass into each other." (Faraday
calls the electrical brush " a spark to air.") " Making a small ball
positive by a good electrical machine with a large prime conductor,
and approaching a large uninsulated discharging ball towards it, very
beautiful variations from the spark to the brusli mav be obtained.
The drawings of long and powerful sparks, given by Van Marura,
(description of the large machine in Taylor's museum, Grerman trans-
lation of 1786, Tab._ III, fig. 1 ;) Harris, (Phila. Trans., 1834, p. 243,)
and others, also indicate the same phenomena," namely, a ramification
of the spark by which its transition to the brush is made. — (Fara-
day's Researches, § 1448.)

"If an insulated conductor, connected with the positive conductor of
an electrical machine, have a metal rod 0.3 of an inch in diameter
projecting from it outwards from the machine and terminating by a
rounded end or a small ball, it will generally give good brushes ; or
if the machine be not in good action, then many ways of assisting
the formation of the brush can be resorted to ; thus, the hand or any
large conducting surface may be approached towards the termination ;"
" or the termination may be smaller and of badly conducting matter,
as wood ; or sparks may be taken between the prime conductor and
the secondary conductor, to which the termination giving brushes
belongs;" ''or the air around the termination may be rarefied." —
(1425.)

That the brush is not a continuous discharge is evinced in the
gradual transition of the spark to the brush. By proper proportion,
in the size of the small knob to the power of the machine, brushes are
obtained which show immediately that they consist of ramified sparks
rapidly following each other ; the machine being worked more rapidly,
or with the same working of the machine substituting a still smaller
discharging knob, the brush assumes a more uniform appearance,
which Faraday very well describes in the following words : "A short
conical bright part or root appeared at the middle part of the ball,
projecting directly from it, which, at a little distance from the ball^
broke out suddenly into a wide brush of pale ramifications, having a
quivering motion, and being accompanied at the same time with a
low, dull, chattering sound." — (1426.)

At first such a brush seems continuous, but Wheatstone has shown
that it consists of successive intermitting discharges, (Philos. Trans.,
1834, p. 586,) which was to be expected from the gradual transition
of the spark to the brush. Faraday gives a very simple method for
decomposing the apparently continuous brush into its elementary
parts without the help of Wheatstone's rotating mirror ; he says : "If
the eye be passed rapidly, not by a motion of the head, but of the
eyeball itself, across the direction of the brush, by first looking stead-
fastly about 10° or 15° above, and then instantly as much below it,
the general brush will be resolved into a number of individual
brushes." — (1427.) This method of analyzing has not succeeded
perfectly in my trials.

374 KECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

"■ On using a smaller ball, the general brush, was smaller, and the
sound, though weaker, more continuous. On resolving the brush into
its elementary parts as before these were found to occur at much
shorter intervals.

" Employing a wire with a round end, the brush was still smaller.,
but, as before, separable into successive discharges. The sound, though
feebler, was higher in pitch, being a distinct musical note."

The sound is in fact due to the recurrence of the noise of each
separate discharge, and these happening at intervals nearly equal,
under ordinary circumstances, cause a definite note to be head, whose E
pitch rises with the increased rapidity and regularity of the discharge.

" By using wires with finer terminations, smaller brushes were
obtained, until they could hardly be distinguished as brushes. But
as long as sound was heard the discharge could be ascertained by the
eye to be intermitting ; and when the sound ceased the light became
continuous as a glow."

To those not accustomed to use the eye in the above-described man-
ner, Wheatstone's apparatus with the revolving mirror is recom-
mended. Another excellent process for analyzing the brush is to
produce it on the end of a rod, held in the hand opposite to the prime
conductor, and then move the rod rapidly from side to side, whilst the
eye remains still.— (1428— 1423.)

§ 83. The brush in various gases. — The experiments on the brush in
various gases Faraday made with brass rods, about one quarter of ati
inch tliick, and whose rounded ends were placed opposite each other
in a glass globe of seven inches diameter, containing the gas. One
of these rods was connected with the prime conductor, the other with
the ground. — (Pog. Ann., XL VII, 553.)

" Air. Fine positive brushes are easily obtained in air, at common
pressures, possessing the well known purplish light. When the air
is rarefied the ramifications are very long, filling the globe; the light
is greatly increased and is of a beautiful purple color, with an occa-
sional rose tint in it.

" Oxygen. At common pressures the brush is very close and com-
pressed, and of a dull whitish color. In rarefied oxygen the form and
appearance are better ; the color somewhat purplish, but all the char-
acters very poor compared to those in air."

. "Nitrogen gives brushes with great facility at the positive surface, far
beyond any other gas." " They are almost always fine in form, light,
and color, and in rarefied nitrogen are mao-nificent. They surpass
the discharges in any other gas as to the quantity of light evolved."

" Hydrogen, at common pressures, gives a better brush than oxygen,
but does not equal nitrogen ; the color was greenish gray. In rare-
fied hydrogen the ramifications were very fine in form and distinctness,
but pale in color, with a soft and velvety appearance, and not at all
equal to those in nitrogen. In the rarest state of the gas the color
was a pale gray green."

"Coal gas. The brushes were rather difficult to produce." "They
were short and strong, generally of a greenish color." "In rare
coal gas the brush forms were better, but the light very poor and the
color gray."

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 375

'■' Carbonic acid produces a very poor brush at common pressures."
*' In rarefied carbonic acid the brush is better in form, but weak as to
light, being of a dull greenish or purplish hue."

" 3Iuriatic acid gas. It is very difficult to obtain the brush in this
gas at common pressures. On gradually increasing the distance of
the rounded ends the sparks suddenly ceased ^^hen the interval was
about an inch, and the discharge, which was still through the gas in
the globe, was silent and dark. Occasionally, a very short brush could,
for a few moments, be obtained, but it quickly disappeared. Even
when the intermitting spark current from the machine was used a
brush wa-s obtained with difficulty, and that very short ;" "in the
mean time, magnificent brushes were passing off from different parts of
the machine into the surrounding air. On rarefying the gas the forma-
tion of the brush was facilitated, but it was yet of a low, squat form,
very poor in light, and very similar on both the positive and negative
surfaces." "On rarefying the gas still more a few large ramifica-
tions were obtained, of a pale bluish color, utterly unlike those in
nitrogen. ' '-—(1456—1462.)

§84. Brush in denser media. — Electrical brushes are produced, not
only in air and gases, but in far denser media. Faraday procured it
in oil of turpentine, (1452,) " from the end of a wire going through a
glass tube into the fluid, contained in a metal vessel. The brush was
small, and yqxj difficult to obtain; the ramifications were simple,
and stretched out from each other, diverging very much. The light
was exceedingly feeble, a perfectly dark room being required for its
observation. When a few solid particles, as of dust or silk, were in
the liquid, the brush was produced with much greater facility."

§ 85. Difference of the positive and negative brush discharge. — On this
subject I extract the following remarks by Faraday :

" When the brush discharge is observed in air, at the positive and
negative surfaces, there is a very remarkable difference. ' The differ-
ence in question used to be expressed in former times by saying that
" a point charged positively gave brushes into the air, whilst the same
point charged negatively gave a star." This is true only of bad con-
ductors, or of metallic conductors charged intermittingly. If metallic
points project freely into the air the positive and negative light upon
them differ very little in appearance."

These phenomena vary exceedingly under different circumstances,
as Faraday shows :

" If a metallic wire, with a rounded termination in free air, be used
to produce the brushy discharge, then the brushes obtained when the
wire is charged negatively are very pour and small by comparison with
those produced when the charge is positive. Or if a large metal ball,
connected with the electrical machine, be charged positively, and a
fine uninsulated point be gradually brought towards it, a star appears
on the point when at a considerable distance, which, though it becomes
brighter, does not change its form of a star until it is close up to the
ball ; whereas, if the ball be charged negatively, the point, at a con-
siderable distance, has a star on it as before ; but when brought nearer,

376 RECENT PROGKESS IN PHYSICS,

a brush formed on it, extending to the negative ball ; and when
still nearer, the brush ceased and bright sparks passed."

As we have already seen, § 80, the spark discharge passes into the
brush at far less distances if the surface on which the discharge begins
(the small ball or the rounded end of a rod) is negative, than if it is
positive ; but on going further into the succession of charges we find
that the positive brush passes into glow long before the negative.

" A metal rod 0.3 of an inch in diameter, with a rounded end pro-
brush. It was ascertained, both by sight and sound, that the succesisve
jecting into the air, was charged negatively and gave a short noisy
discharges were very rapid in their recurrence, six or seven times more
numerous than when the rod was charged positively to an equal
degree."

' ' When the rod was positive it was easy, by working the machine
a little quicker, to replace the brush by a glow, but when it was nega-
tive no efforts could produce this change." — (1468.)

"A point opposite the negative brush exhibited a star, and, as it was
approximated, caused the size and sound of the brush to diminish, and
at last to cease, leaving the negative end silent and dark, yet effective
as to discharge." — (1469.)

" When the round end of a smaller wire was advanced towards the
negative brush, it (becoming positive by induction) exhibited the quiet
glow at eight inches distance, the negative brush continuing. When
nearer, the pitch of the sound of the negative brush rose, indicating
quicker intermittances ; still nearer the positive end threw off ramifi-
cation and distinct brushes, at the same time the negative brush con-
tracted in its lateral direction and collected together, giving a peculiar,
narrow, longish brush, in shape like a hair pencil ; the two brushes
existing at once, but were very different in their form and appearance,
and especially in the more rapid recurrence of the negative discharges
than of the positive. On using a smaller positive- wire for the same
experiment the glow first appeared in it and then the brush, and
the two at one distance became exceedingly alike in appearance."
(1470.)

"In air the superiority of the positive brush is well known. In
nit7'ogen it is as great or even greater than in air. In hydrogen the
positive brush loses a part of its superiority, not being so good as in
nitrogen or air, whilst the negative brush does not seem injured.
In oxygen the positive brush is compressed and poor, whilst the nega-
tive did not become less ; the two were so alike that the eye frequently
could not tell one from the other. In coal gas the brushes are
difficult of production ;" " and the positive not much superior to the
negative, either at common or low pressure. In carbonic acid this
approximation of character also occurred. In muriatic acid gas the
positive brush was very little better than the negative." — (1476.)

§ 86. Glow discharge. — The glow " seems to depend upon a quick
and almost continuous charging of the air close to and in contact with
the conductor." — (Faraday's Researches, 1526.) Faraday was never
able to separate it into visible intermitting elementary discharges.
The glow is produced by —

1st. Diminution of the charging surface. — At the end of a metal rod

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 377

w.ith a blunt conical point, a phosphorescent continuous glow is ob-
tained the more readily as the point is finer.

2d. Increase of power in the machine. — Rounded ends, which give
only brushes when the machine is in weak action, give the glow readily
when the machine is in good order.

3d. Puirefaction of the air. — A brass ball 2| inches in diameter
being made positively inductive in an air-pump receiver, became
covered with glow in part, " when the pressure was reduced to 4.4
inches. By a little adjustment the ball could be covered all over with
this light. Using a brass ball 1.25 inch in diameter, and making
it inducteously positive by an inducti/e negative point, the phenomena
were exceedingly beautiful. The glow came over the positive ball,
and gradually increased in brightness until it was at least very lu-
minous ; and it also stood up, like a low iiame, half an inch or more
in height."— (1529.)

The negative gloio is difficult to obtain in air at common pressures ;
" and it is as yet questionable whetber, even on fine points, what is
called the negative star is not a very reduced, but still intermitting
brush, or a glow." — (15i^0.)

In rarefied air the negative glow can easily be obtained. If the
rounded ends of two metal rods about 0.2 of an inch in diameter
are about four inches apart in rarefied air, the glow can be easily ob-
tained on both rods, covering not only the ends but an inch or two of
the part behind. Balls are also covered with the negative glow in
rarefied air, whether their surface is inductive or inducteous. — (1531.)

The glow occurs in all the gases examined for it by Faraday. He
thought he obtained it also in oil of turpentine, though it was very
dull and small.— (1534.)

"The glowis always accompanied by a wind,proceedingeither directly
out from the glowing part or directly towards it ; the former being the
most general case." If the arrangements are made so that the ready
and regular access of air to a part exhibiting the glow be interfered
with or prevented the glow then disappears. — (1535.)

Frequently it is possible to change the brush given by the end of
a rod into a glow, by simply aiding the formation of a current of air
at its extremity. — (1535.)

§ 87. Dark discharge. — If to the rounded end of a metallic rod pro-
jecting from the prime conductor of a machine a similar rod be held
at a little distance, it is easy to obtain the appearance of light at the
ends of both rods, while the intervening space between the positive
and negative light remains dark ; besides this familiar phenomenon,
Faraday notices a very remarkable case of dark discharge.

'' Two brass rods, 0.3 of an inch in diameter, entering a glass globe
on opposite sides, had their ends brought into contact, and the air
about them very much rarefied. A discharge of electricity from the
machine was then made through them, and while that continued the
ends were separated from each other. At the moment of separation
a continuous glow came over the end of the negative rod, the positive
termination remaining quite dark. As the distance was increased a
purple stream or haze appeared on the end of the positive rod, and
proceeded directly onward towards the negative rod, elongating as the

d75 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

interval was enlarged, but never joining the negative glow, there being
always a short dark space between. This space, of about one-sixteenth or
one-twentieth of an inch was apparently invariable in its extent aind
its position relative to the negative rod ; nor did the negative glow vary.
Whetlier the negative ends were inductive or inducteous the same effect
was produced."

Similar phenomena were obtained with balls instead of the rounded
ends of rods.

§ 88. Conveciive discliarge. — The dielectric being penetrated by the
spark, the brush, and also by the glow, Faraday calls this form of i
discharge the disruptive discharge. With the brush, and still more
with the glow, another form of discharge appears, making itself mani-
fest by the so-called electrical wind. This is owing to the ])article8 of i\
the dielectric, in close contact with the charged conductor, (on the end '
of the electrified rod,) receiving an electrical charge, in consequence of
which they are repelled ; and by a repetition of this action the conduc-
tor is discharged.

" Why a point should be so exceedingly favorable to the production
of currents is evident. It is at the extremity of the point that the
intensity necessary to charge the air is first acquired ; it is from thence
that the charged particle recedes ; and the mechanical force which it im-
presses on the air to form a current is in every way favored by the shapes
and position of the rod whose point forms the termination." — (1573.)

Particles of dust floating in the air favor the escape of electricity.

" On using oil of turpentine as the dielectric^ the action and course
of small conducting, carrying particles in it, can be well observed."

" A very striking effect was produced on oil of turpentine, which,
whether it was due to the carrying power of the particles in it, or to
any other action of them, is, perhaps, as yet doubtful. A portion of
that fluid in a glass vessel had a large uninsulated silver dish at the
bottom, and an electrified metal rod, with a round termination, dip-
ping into it at the top. The insulation was very good. The rod end,
with a drop of gum water attached to it, was then electrified in the
fluid ; the gum water soon spun off in fine threads, and was quickly
dissipated through the oil of turpentine. By the time that four drops
had in this manner been commingled with a pint of the dielectric, the
latter had lost by far the greatest portion of its insulating power ;"
" the fluid was slightly turbid. Upon being filtered through paper
only, it resumed its first clearness, and now insulated as well as be-
fore."— (1571.)

"Conducting fluid terminations, instead of rigid points, illustrate in
a very beautiful manner the formation of the currents, with their
effects and influence in exalting the conditions under which they were
commenced. Let the rounded end of a brass rod, 0.3 of an inch, or
thereabouts, in diameter, point downwards in free air ; let it be amal-
gamated and have a drop of mercury suspended from it, and then let
it be powerfully electrized, the mercury will present the [)henomenon
of gloio ; a current of air will rush along the rod and set off from the
mercury directly downwards, and the form of the metallic drop will be
slightly affected, the convexity at a small part near the middle and
lower part becoming greater, whilst it diminishes all round at plac-^'-'
a little removed from this spot." — (1581.)

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

379

"Take next ad ro]i of strong solution of miiriateoflime; being
electrified, a part will probably be dissipated, but a con-
siderable portion, if the electricity be not too powerful, will
remain, forming a conical drop, (fig. 74,) accompanied by
a strong wind. If glow be produced the drop will be smooth
on the surface. If a short low brush is formed a minute
tremulous motion of the liquid will be visible."

" With a drop of water the effects were of the same kind, and
were best obtained when a portion of gum water or syrup hung
from a ball, (fig. 75.) When the machine was worked slowly a fine,
large, quite conical drop, with concave lateral outline and a Fig. 75.
small rounded end, was produced, on which the glow appeared,
whilst a steady wind issued from the point of the cone of
sufficient force to depress the surface of uninsulated water
lield opposite to the termination. When the machine v/as
worked more rapidly some of the water was driven off, the
smaller pointed portion left was roughisli on the surface,
and the sound of successive brush discharges was heard,
Witb still more electricity, more water was dispersed ; that which re-
mained was alternately elongated and contracted,'"' and "a stronger
brush discharge was heard. Whea water from beneath was brought
towards the drop, it did not indicate the same regular, strong, contracted
current of air as before; and when the distance was such that sparks
passed the water beneath was attracted rather than driven away, and
the current of air ceased." — (1584.)

" That the drop, when of water, or a better conductor than water,
is formed into a cone principally by the current of air, is shown,
amongst other ways, thus : A sharp point being held opposite the coni-
cal drop, the latter soon lost its pointed form, was retracted and be-
came round ; the current of air from it ceased, and was replaced by
one from the point beneath, which, if the latter was held near enough
to the drop actually blew it aside and rendered it concave in form."
With still worse conductors, as oil, or oil of turpentine, the fluid was
"spun out into threads and carried off, not only because the air rushing
over its surface helped to sweep it away, but also because its insulating
particles assumed the same changed state as the particles of air, and,
not being able to discharge to them in a much greater degree than
the air particles themselves could do, were carried oft" by the same causes
which urged these in their course. A similar effect with melted sealing-
wax on a metal point forms an old and well known experiment." — (1588.)

"A drop of gum water in the exhausted receiver of the air pump
was not sensibly affected in its form when electrified/' which was
partly owing to the diminished current of air, and partly, perhaps, that
the tension of the electricity on the ball is not so great in rarefied as
in dense air.

" That I many not be misunderstood," says Faraday, " I must ob-
serve here that I do not consider the cones produced as the result only
of the current of air or other insulating dielectrics over their surface.
When the drop is of badly conducting matter a part of the effect is
due to the electrified state of the particles," &c. — (1594.)

380

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

" When tlie phenomena of currents are observed in dense insulating
dielectrics they present us with extraordinary degrees of mechanical
force. Thus, if a pint of well rectified and filtered oil of turpentine |
be put into a glass vessel and two wires be dipped into it in different
places, one leading to the electrical machine and the other to the dis-
charging train, on working the machine, the fluid will be thrown into ■
violent motion, whilst, at the same time, it will rise 2, 3, or 4 inches up »
the machine wire, and dart off in jets from it into the air." — (1595.)

'' A drop of mercury being suspended from an amalgamated brass i
ball preserved its form almost unchanged in air, but when immersed .
in the oil of turpentine it became very pointed and even particles of i"
the metal could be spun out and carried off. The form of the liquid
metal was just like that of syrup in air." — (1597.)

"If the mercury at tlie bottom of the fluid be connected with the
electrical machine, whilst a rod is held in the iiand terminating, in a
ball three quarters of an inch in diameter, and the ball be dipped into
the electrified fluid, very striking appearances ensue. When the ball
is raised again so as to be at a level nearly out of the fluid, large por-
tions of the latter will seem to cling to it, (fig. 76.) If it be raised

Fig. 76.

Fig. 77.

higher a column of the oil of turpentine will still connect it with
that in the basin below, (fig. 77.) If the machine be excited into
* more powerful action this will become more bulky, and may then also
be raised higher, assuming ths form, (fig. 78.)

'' A very remarkable effect is produced on these phenomena, con-
nected with positive and negative charge and discharge, namely, that
a ball charged positively raises a much higher and larger column
of the oil of turpentine than when charged negatively." — (Faraday
Eesearches, series XIII, 1600.)

§ 89. Laws of the brightness of the electrical spark. — Masson pub-
lished in the 14th volume of the Armeies de Chimie et de Physique^
page 129, (1845, 3d part,) his researches upon the brightness of the
electrical spark, under the title : " Etudes de Photometric Electrique."

The ordinary photometre can be used only for permanent and not for
momentary sources of light ; for measuring the brightness of the elec-
trical spark, which gives only a momentary illumination, Masson was

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

381

;Obliged to contrive a new photometric principle. In fact he solved
■the problem in a very ingenious manner.

If a disk be divided into sectors equally large ^'"- "^•

and alternately black and white, as in fig;. 79,
;5ind be put into rapid rotation, the different
sectors cannot be distinguished when the disk
is illuminated by a constant source of light ;
but if it be illuminated by an electrical spark
for an instant the sectors of the rotating disk
iwill become visible again, and as much more
,so as the electrical spark is brighter. But if
|the illumination by the electrical spark be
gradually weakened, while that from the con-
stant source of light remain the same, a point will be attained where
the sectors just cease to be distinguishable, and in this case the power
of the illumination by the electrical spark is a determinate fraction
of the illumination by the constant source, its magnitude depending
lupon the peculiarity of the observer's eye.

J We will now consider in what manner this limit of the ability to
! distinguish may be ascertained.

A part of a sector on a white disk, (fig.
[80,) being blackened, and the disk turned
rapidly about its centre, the black piece will
form a ring somewhat darker than the white
ground of the disk. The ring will appear as
much fainter as the black spot is narrower,
, and if the experiment be made with a series
of such disks, each successive one having a
narrower black end-portion of a sector m n,
I we will at last fin«! one in which the dark
ring ceases to be distinguishable.

Xet us suppose this to be the case when
I the breadth of the sector is y^-q of ^be entire

.circumference; it is evident that the brightness of the ring is less
than the brightness of the disk by jl--^ ; in this case the eye cannot
j distinguish a difi'erence of yio- ^^ illumination.

Masson made his experiments with disks upon which the breadth of
the sectors were ^oj irV, yVj toj ^\, tj-q, rfoj tIo, of the whole cir-
cumference, and by means of them he found that for weak eyes a
difference of illumination of Jy- to J-^ was the limit of perceptibility.

For ordinary eyes this limit was y-V to

for very good eyes -yoo

to rfo-

On varying tlie intensity of the illumination Masson found that
the sensibility for the same individual did not change if the illumi-
nation was sufficient for reading ordinary print.

The rotating plate being illuminated with colored light, Masson
found that the limit of perceptibility of difference of illumination is
independent of the color.

382

EECEXT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Fig. 81.

We now pass to the particular object of Masson's investigation.
The arrangement of his experiments was essentially as follows : A

rotating disk, a b, fig. 81, (the rota-
tion being produced by clock-work,)
divided into white and black sectors,
as in fig. 79, was illuminated in the
direction of ^ (7 by the constant light
of a lamp L, which was movable in the
line of this direction. This lamp was
placed in a black case so that it could
throw its light on the rotating disk
only through a tube. In the direc-
tion of the line B C a, movable spark
micrometre F was placed. One of the
knobs of this micrometer was in con-
ducting connexion wi:h the upper
coating of a horizontal glass plate, the
other knob with the lower coating;
the spark always passed between the
two knobs as soon as the charge of the plate had reached a certain
limit, which depended upon the distance of the knobs from each other.
Masson first satisfied himself that, for the instantaneous light of the
electrical spark, the intensity of the illumination was also, as in other
cases, in the inverse ratio of the square of the distance.

The lamp L being at a given distance from the disk a h, the spark
micrometer was gradually removed from the disk, until at the passage
of the spark the sectors of the rotating disk were no longer distin-
guishable, and the distance of the spark from the disk was determined.
The lamp was then moved, and the same experiment repeated, the
distance between the knobs of the spark micrometer remaining un-
changed. The following table gives the results of such an experi-
mental series ; Z denotes the distance of the lamp, Y the correspond-
ing distance of the spark micrometer from the middle of the disk ab:

z.

Y.

z

Y.

tnm.

mm.

540

407

1.32

640

489

1.30

740

569

1.30

840

648

1.29

940

737

1.2S

1040

826

1.25

Mean. .....

1.29

Since Z and Y increase in an equal (or very nearly equal) ratio, it
is evident that, with increasing distances, the illumination for both
sources of light decreases according to the same law; hence the illu-
mination by an electrical spark is likewise inversely proportional to
tiie square of the distance.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

383

The same result was given by several other series of experiments,
which Masson has arranged in tables. It will be sufficient to present
here only one of the many series, serving to establish each of the laws
determined.

\ The values of Y, as given in the tables, are always the mean of two
jexperiraents. After the distance Y of the spark micrometer from the
irotating disk at which the sectors could be no longer distinguished
had been once determined the miciometer was brought considerably
inearer the disk again, and then removed the second time, until the
jsector disappeared. The two values of Y, thus determined, differed in
the various series at most by one centimetre, a proof of the exactness
attainable by this method of observation.

§ 90. Variation of the brightness of the spark at different strildng
distances.— On this point Masson made numerous experiments. The
folio win <x table contains the results of one of them :

X .

Y.

Y
X

mm.

mm.

2.5

318

127

3.5

447

127

4.5

572

127

5.5

697

126

6.5

830

127

7.5

M

957
can

127

127

Here X denotes the striking distance, Y the corresponding distance
of the spark from the rotating disk, at which the sectors cannot be
distinguished, under the condition that the constant illumination of
the rotating disk from AC remained unchanged during the whole
series of experiments.

It is evident, from the above table, that the striking distance and
the corresponding distance of the spark from the rotating disk must
vary in a constant ratio, the illumination of the disk remaining the
same. Or, for double and treble striking distances, he spark must
be removed two and three times as far from the disk, if its illumina-
tion by the spark is to remain the same.

By doubling the distance, the intensity of the illumination becomes
four times feebler, but it remains unchanged if the striking distance
is doubled, consequently the brilliancy of the spark mus the four times
greater at double the striking distance. For the distance n the illu-
mination by the electrical spark is n- times feebler, but it remains
unchanged if the striking distance is made n times greater ; hence,
for a striking distance n the brilliancy of the spark must be n'^ times
greater, or in other words, the hi^ightness of the electrical spark increases
as the square of the striking distance.

§ 91. Influence of the size and form of the surface of the condenser. —
The form of the condenser (that is, the glass plate with metallic coat-
ing on both sides, the dif^charge of which passes through the spark

384

RECENT PEOGRESS IN PHYSICS.

micrometer) has no influence upon the brightness of the electrical
spark if the extent of the coating remain the same. The size of the
plate, however, has considerable influence.

With unchanged distance of the constant light and of the striking
distance, and with the same thickness of glass, the surface of the
coating was varied, and each time the corresponding distance of the
spark from the rotating disk, at which the sectors just ceased to be
perceived, was observed. The results of such a series of observations
are given in the following table :

Surface in square
millimetres.

Ratio.

Y.

Y-\

Rati'o .

22500

mm.
314
420
514

98596
176400
264196

40000
60000

1.77
2.66

1.78
2.67

The first vertical column contains the size of the surface of the coat-
ing, the second is the ratio of the first and second surfaces, and then
of the first and third. The third column gives the corresponding Y,
the fourth the square of this distance^, and the last the ratio of the
numbers of the first Y^ to the second, and of the first to the third.

Comparing the second and fifth columns we have very plainly

(1)

that is, the superficial content F of the coating of the condenser is in
jiroportion to the square of the distance Y, the illumination of the
disk ab by the electrical spark remaining constant.
But the constant illumination of the disk is

J = c Y2

J denoting the intensity of the light of the spark, and c a constant
factor, or

ys

c.

(2)

Combining equations (1) and (2) we get

J = -- F ;

n

or, the hriglitness of the electrical spark is proportional to the surface of
the coating.

§ 92. lielation hetiveen the intensity of the electrical sparh and the
thickness of the condenser. — The surface of the coating remaining the
same, the thickness of the glass plate was changed ; and for each plate
the distance Y was observed at which the sectors just ceased to be
visible, the illumination by the lamp remaining constant. The fol-
lowing table contains a few of the results obtained.

KECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

3S5

No.

Thickness of

Square root of

Y.

plate d.

thickness Vd.

mm.

■mm.

1

1.31

l.U

1044

2

1.83

1.35

904

3

2.51

1.57

775

Now, If I = 1.18 and VVi* = l-l^, that is, the two quotients are

nearly equal, or -=- = ~- ; moreover, 1^1= 1.27 and ^-AM = 1.35,

vd' Y" , . o ,

or very nearly —=—= :^, ; and, finally, i|| = 1.16, and M| =:

V^'" Y"
1.17, or — =- =: — , therefore the values of Y are nearly In the in-

Va' Y'"

verse ratio of the square roots of the corresponding thiol', nesses of the
glass ; that is

Vd = Y

or

but we have J =2 c Y"^, hence

d~^

d X J = c. p,

or

J =

_ cjo-

d

that is, tJie intensity of the spark is inversely proportional to the thick-
ness of the condenser.

The rediaining experiments which Masson made on this point did
not coincide generally so well with the above deductions. This he
ascribes to the circumstance that he could not measure the thickness
of the glass with sufficient accuracy, and that the different condensers
may have had unequal "capacities for condensation."

§ 93. Injiuence of the nature of the pole on the electrical sparh. — Mas-
son found that the spark is somewhat more intense, if, under circum-
stances otherwise the same, it be passed between lead, zinc, and tin
balls, than when the balls (equal, in size) are of copper, brass, or iron.
Masson thinks that this depends upon the unequal tenacity of the
metals. In all his experiments there were traces of a transportation
of the metal from one pole to the other ; now since lead, for example,
is less tenacious than copper, more lead will be carried off than copper
with the same tension of the electricity ; the conducting circuit then
will have its capacity for conduction suddenly increased, and the light
must become more brilliant in consequence.
25 s

386 RECENT PROGEESS IN PHYSICS.

This opinion is sustained by the fact that the intensity of the spark
is very considerably increased if polished brass balls be exchanged for
such as have their surface amalgamated, where evidently the trans-
ference is greatly facilitated.

The spark, with the carbon used for Bunsen's battery, is very white
in the middle, reddish at the edges, and looks a little like a flame.

§ 94. Nature of electrical light. — There are two hypotheses as to the
nature of the electrical spark ; the first regards it as a motion which
is communicated to the ether by the electrical spark ; according to the
second hypothesis, electrical light is produced by incandescent pon-
derable matter transported by the electricity.

Masson inclines to the first hypothesis, with which also his experi-
ments coincide, since the intensity of the spark depends in no respect
upon the fusibility or oxidibility of the balls, but upon their tenacity.
If, in consequence of the lower tenacity of the metals, more particles
are carried off, the facility of the circuit for conduction is increased ;
hence the same quantity of electricity is discharged in a shorter time,
whereby a more brilliant light is produced. All of the laws of the
brightness of electrical light just mentioned are comprised by the
following formula :

J=:Hf4 (1)

in which

J denotes the intensity of the spark ;

X the striking distance ;

s the surface of the condenser ;

Y the distance of the spark from the rotating disk of the photometer ;

e the thickness of the condenser, and H a constant factor depending

upon elements which are not yet determined.

q

Substituting in equation (1), X=^-^, which is allowable, smce

s

Kiess has shown that the striking distance is proportional to the elec-
trical density (§ 31), we have

J=.%.4^ (2)

Y

6'

H»2
by making = w, that is, equal to a constant factor which is ad-
missible so long as the thickness e of the condenser does not vary.

q 2
Hence the intensity of the electrical light is proportional to -V- the

square of the electrical density, or which is the same, to the tension
of the electricity and the surface s of the condenser.
Equation (1) may also be written

J=Y^X5X

Substituting for the last X its value ^— , we get

J=I^Xg. ' (3)

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 387

or in words, tlie intensity of the spark is proportional to the striking
distance and quantity of electricity.
According to equation (2),

J = P-li.

s

But Riess has shown that,

w = Qii,

s

is the quantity of heat which is set free in the wire by discharging
through it a quantity of electricity q, collected od the surface s.

Hence if the discharge stroke of an electrical bati.ery produces a spark
at any interruption of the circuity the intensity of the light is propor-
tional to the heat tvhich the same discharge produces in a piece of wire
forming part of the circuit.

At the conclusion of his memoir, Masson proposes the spark gen-
erated under determinate conditions as the photometric unit, by
which it will be possible to compare the intensity of the most diverse
constant sources of light with a common standard.

SECTION FIFTH.
ELECTRICAL ODOR.

§ 95. Ozone and its reactions. — When we are in the neighborhood of
a powerful electrical machine we perceive, when the electricity issues
from points, or when a series of sparks are passed from the conductor,
a very peculiar odor, which, for sake of brevity, we will term electrical
odor, or osone odor. This electrical odor is very probably that which
is observed after a stroke of lightning ; and which, by those who do
not know how to characterize it properly, is termed a sulphurous smell.
Schonbein observed in the vicinity of a place where lightning had
struck a decided odor of ozone, even some time after the stroke.

Until recently we were quite in the dark as to the nature of this
odor. Some physicists supposed that it was owing to a peculiar affec-
tion of the organs of smell, produced by electricity ; an explanation
which, in addition to its error, did great injury, by preventing further
investigation and discusf3ion.

Others advanced the hypothesis that electrical odor was owing to
fine metallic particles carried off by the escaping electricity. But this
view also is entirely inadmissible, because the nature of the emitting
points does not in the least change the nature of the odor.

388 EECENT PEOGEESS IN PHYSICS.

SchonLein has the great credit of having restored this question to
the current of scientific activity. He has shown that the electrical odor
comes from a peculiar gas, produced during the electrical emission,
which he calls ozone. He has investigated the properties of this sub-
stance for years with the greatest zeal, and although, as yet, it has
not been obtained in an isolated state, many of its important chemical
and physical relations have been ascertained, and further researches
on the subject promise most interesting discoveries in the field of
chemistry.

The first memoir of Schonbein on ozone is in the ^^ De.nkscliriften
der Mundieuer Akademie." It is also printed in Poggepdorf's Anna-
Itn. Bd. L. p. 616.

A small pamphlet with the title, " On the pi^oduction of ozone in the
chemical ivay," evidently by Schonbein, was published in 1844 by
Schonbein & Schweighaiiser, in Basel.

The most important treatises on this subject which then followed
are to be found in Poggendorfs Annalen, by reference to the index of
names, appended to the LXXV volume.

In these papers the historical course of Schonbein's discoveries may
be followed out. I will omit this historical investigation on account
of its great extent, and I will not refer to the contents of the separate
paj)ers, but describe the most essential experiments which show the
nature and most important relations of ozone, in the order in which
Professor Schonbein had the goodness to show them to me in the year
1849, and, passing over their earlier phases, present his views upon
its nature as now held, after many years investigation.

The prime conductor of an electrical machine being provided at the

Fig. 82. end with a round-pointed wire, a, b, about 1 line in

diameter, (fig. 82.) When the machine is turned the

peculiar electrical odor will be perceived in the vicinity

of the end a of the wire.

That this odor is not to be ascribed to a mere subjec-
tive affection of the organ rf smell, but is owing to a
peculiar gas, is certain from the fact that this odorous
principle produces a series of chemical and physical
effects, having the greatest similarity to the chemical
reactions and physical relations of other gases. Indeed,
Schonbein has succeeded in preparing this odorous prin-
ciple, ozone, in a purely chemical way, and in producing
the same reactions with it which are observed when elec-
tricity is issuing from points.

If we hold before the point, at the distance of about ^ or 1 inch, a
piece of paper covered with a paste of starch and iodide of potassium,
the paste will at once turn blue.

To make this preparation two teaspoons full of starch with a small
crystal of iodide of potassium are to be boiled to a paste, with ten
times their volume of water.

The ozone acts upon this paste as chlorine does ; it decomposes the
iodide of potassium, and the iodine set free, colors the starch blue.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 38d

This phenomenon (of turning the paste of iodide of potassium bine)
takes place in the same manner whether the point emit positive or
negative electricity ; it is also perfectly immaterial of what substance
the point is made, if only an emission of electricity occurs, thus re-
futing the view of those earlier physicists who maintained that the
od5r was owing to metallic particles carried off by the issuing elec-
tricity.

On holding a platinum or gold plate before the point while the
machine is turned, the plate has imparted to it negative galvanic po-
larization, which can be demonstrated in the following manner :

Connect the two mercury cups a and 6, Fig. 83, with the wire ends
of a multiplier. Into the cu[) a dip a copper pj^ gg

wire, to the other end of which a platinum
plate p is fastened, the plate having been
first soldered with gold to a platinum wire,
and this to the copper wire at n. This pla-
tinum plate hangs in a glass vessel contain-
ing water slightly acidified.

After having exposed a perfectly similar
platinum plate for a time to the electricity
issuing from a point, immerse it also in the
water of the glass vessel, and as soon as the
copper wire of the second plate is immersed
into the cup of mercury 6, a considerable
divergence of the galvanometer needle takes place, and in a direction
which indicates that the platinum plate which had been exposed to
ozone behaves negatively toward the other ; that is, the deflection is
in the same direction which would have been indicated had a zinc wire
been placed in a, a copper wire in 6, and these wires then immersed
in the liquid of the glass vessel. This current, however, is only
transient.

The vdiole subject of galvanic polarization we will discuss in an-
other place ;* it is only mentioned here as one of the effects which
accompany the emission of electricity from points.

All these reactions disappear when sulphuretted hydrogen, ammo-
nia, olefiant gas, &c., are diffused in the air of the room where the
experiment is made.

If the emitting point be raised by the flame of a sph'it lamp to a
red heat, and the machine put in operation immediately after the
removal of the lamp, all the above described phenomena, which had
accompanied the escape of electricity, disappear ; that is, the elec-
trical cdor is no longer perceived, the iodine preparation does not turn
blue, platinum or gold plates are not polarized. All the phenomena
reappear, however, gradually, as the point cools.

In order to make the experiment distinct, with reference to the odor,
it must be made with wires of one of the precious metals, because the
easily oxidable metals diffuse a peculiar smell simply by being heated.
Very thin wires are not suitable for this experiment ; but as thick

* See report for 1855, p. 377.

390 RECENT PEOGEESS IN PHYSICS.

ones may not always he at hand, it will do to use a thin platinum
wire having its end fused into a small knob about one line in diameter.

§ 96. Electrical odor in the electrolysis of ivater. — The electrical
odor appears not only on the escape of electricity from points, but
also in the electrolytic decomposition of water, where we find it ac-
companied by the same reaction and effects which were considered''in
the preceding paragraph.

On closer investigation it appears that electrical odor manifests
itself at the positive pole, where oxygen is given off; for on collecting
the gases resulting from the decomposition of water separately, the
odor in question was perceived only in that vessel which contained the
oxygen, no trace of it being found in the one containing the hydrogen.

The gases when obtained together have the electrical odor.

On suspending a paper covered with the paste of iodide of potas-
sium in oxygen, or in the mixed gases to which the ozone odor has
been imparted by electrolysis, the paper turns blue. A platinum
plate exposed for a time to the action of this, gas indicates the same
electro-negative polarization as though it had been acted on by the
electrical brush.

Chemically pure oxygen gas produces none of these effects ; it has
not the odor, does not turn the iodide paste blue, and is not in the
condition to polarize a platinum plate negatively.

The gas obtained by electrolytic decomposition produces, in all
these cases, the same effects as the air which issues from a strongly
electrified point.

§ 97. Fi'oduction of ozone in tJie chemical ivay. — The so-called electri-
cal odor can be produced by purely chemical means without any aid
from electricity. A piece of phosphorus made perfectly dry by blotting
paper, so that it has a clean surface, emits a peculiar alliaceous odor.
Placing such a piece of phosphorus in a jar of air, the vapor of phos-
phorus will in the cold soon diffuse itself through the whole jar. A
platinum plate being then suspended in the jar a short time it will
be polarized positively.

The polarization of the platinum plate is to be ascribed to the phos-
phoric vapor diffused in the jar, but the odor very probably is due to
the phosphoric acid, which is formed by the partial oxidation of the
phosphorus vapor.

If a little water be now introduced into the jar, (as much as will
half cover the piece of phosphorus,) the phosphoric odor becomes
weaker and weaker, and at length wholly disappears, and in its place
a decided ozone odor will be perceived. At rather high temperatures
the ozone smell appears very soon.

This odor is not to be distinguished from that produced in the
electrical way, and it is accompanied by all the reactions and effects
which characterize the agency of the electrical odor. A paper with the
iodide paste on it becomes blue when suspended in the jar, and a
platinum plate exposed to its action is polarized electro-negatively .

With the ozone obtained in the chemical way the reactions can be
])roduced almost exactly in the same form as with a point emitting
electricity. For this purpose a bottle of the capacity of several quarts

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

391

Fig. 84.

is filled with air containing ozone, and closed witli a cork, (Fig. 84.)

having two holes bored in it. Through one

of the holes a tube passes nearly to the
I bottom, having a funnel at its upper end ;

through the other hole a tube passes, which
, merely goes through the cork, and above
; the cork is bent horizontally, ending in a
. tolerably fine opening ; water being poured
, through the funnel in a regulated stream,

the air containing the ozone is driven out

through the point of the other tube. This

point now behaves exactly like a metallic

point from which an electrical brush issues.

By holding the nose to it the electrical odor

will be observed ; the iodide paper held

before it turns hlue^ and a platinum plate

exposed to the jet is polarized electro-nega-

iivehj.

We have seen above that all the effects of

ozone disappear when the point emitting the

brush is heated, in like manner all the re-
actions of ozone disappear as soon as the horizontal part of the escape

tube is strongly heated by a s{)irit lamp. The air which escapes from

the opening of the hot tube has no longer any smell, it will not turn

the iodide paper blue, nor polarize the platinum plate. But all these

effects reappear on the cooling of the tube.

§ 98. Chemical naiure of ozone. — Schonbein, the discoverer of ozone,
has observed and investigated for years, with unwearied industry, the
relations of this remarkable substance, and has found that it bears the
greatest resemblance to the hyper oxides ; he has finally come to
the opinion that ozone is nothing else than a gaseous peroxide of
hydrogen. *^

Ozone is therefore formed by a further oxidation of the vapor of
Avater contained in the air. Thus it is explained why water, or rather
the vapor of water, is absolutely necessary to the formation of ozone.
In perfectly dry air ozone cannot be obtained by means of phosphorus.

Electricity prepares the vapor of the atmosphere to oxidize further

■-' At the present time, however, the view of nearly all of the chemists who have studied
this subject is different from that given by the author. It is now generally conceded that
ozone is nothing but oxygen, but there are two different vi»^ws in regard to its nature ;
according to one, ozr.ne is simply oxygen thrown into a condition of activity by the instru-
mentality of electricity or other agents above named.

The other view considers ozone as formed of two or more equivalents of oxygen. If, as
some hold, gaseous oxygen be o^, it could be easily shown that this double molecule under-
going decomposition, (even by reducing agents as phosphorus, the e.ssential oils, &c.,) sets
free Oj^, (oxygen in the nascent state.) which might unite with o^ to form 03, similar in
properties to S o^, (sulphurous acid,) sulphur and oxygen being elements capable of re-
placing each other to form analogous compounds as in the sulphurets and oxide.s.

We deem it moreover quite possibL', in a measure, to reconcile the views of Schonbein
with those last named, but this whole subject, being a purely chemical question, would be
out of place in a report upon physical science, and has only been mentioned because the
bare statement in the text might lead those not familiar with the matter into erroneous
views. G. C. S.

392 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

and form ozone; in like manner phosphorus effects the comhination of
the vapor of water with oxygen, hut, as yet, we are not able to tell
liow it is done.

Ozone is decomposed into its components, oxygen and hydrogen, hy
heat, as shown by the experiment noticed above.

De la Eive and Berzelius, indeed, regarded ozone as modified
oxygen, and maintained that it could be produced by an electrical jet
in dry oxygen, but this is contrary to all Schonbein's analogies.
Schonbein presented the following experiment as the most striking
proof of the presence of hydrogen in ozone : if air containing ozone
be dried as perfectly as possible and then heated, it yields water on
cooling to hydroscopic bodies over which it is passed. The ozone is
decomposed by heat, and the vapor of water which it contained is set
free.

Ozone is one of the most powerful means of producing oxidation
which is known. Air containing ozone being passed for a long time
over finely divided metallic silver, the latter is converted into peroxide
of silver. The vapor of phosphorus is rapidly oxidized under the in-
fluence of ozone, and converted into phosphorous acid .'ind phosphoric
acid.

The fact that the passage of the electrical spark through moist atmo-
spheric air forms nitric acid was discovered by Cavendish, in the year
1785. Schonbein has proved that under like circumstances ozone also
is always formed.

Since ozone can be produced in moist oxygen by the help of the elec-
tric spark, it is evident that the formation of ozone is independent of
that of nitric acid. On the contrary, Schonbein has made it appear
highly probable that the formation of nitric acid is not a direct effect
of electricity, but a secondary effect produced by the oxidizing
influence of ozone on the nitrogen of the atmosphere.

The formation of nitric acid by electricity may be shown in the
simplest manner, by exposing, for a time, a paper moistened with a
solution of carbonate of potash to a jet of electricity escaping from a
wire ; the carbonate, under these circumstances, is converted in part
into nitrate of potash.

The ozone formed by means of phosphorus also produces nitric acid.
The mixture of phosphorous and phosphoric acids, which furms in a
receiver containing a piece of phosphorus, water, and atmospheric air,
is absorbed by water. If this water be colored by a solution of indigo,
the color of the latter is immediately destroyed, an effect which neither
phosphorous nor phosphoric acid alone can produce. The decoloring
is effected by a small quantity of nitric acid, which, formed under the
influence of the ozone, is also dissolved in the water.

That it is actually nitric acid which is here in question is proved by
shaking the water with milk of lime ; insoluble salts of lime are
formed with the phosphorous and phosphoric acids, while a nitrate of
lime remains in solution.

Davy observed that traces of nitric acid appeared at the positive pole
of a pile when a voltaic current passed through water containing air or
nitrogen. Here, also, the formation of nitric acid is a secondary effect

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 393

of electricity. Ozone is first formed by the action of the current, and
the ozone then oxidizes the nitrogen.

' § 99. Illumination of phosphorus produced by ozone. — It is well known
that at low tem[)eratures, slow combustion of phosphorus does not take
place in air free from ozone, and tnere is therefore no illumination in
the dark; this, however, appears as soon as ozone is brought into con-
tact with the phosphorus. In a receiver containing ozonized air
'phosphorus shines at a very low temperature.

Schonbein has shown this very beautifully by presenting a stick of
phosphorus, at a low temperature, to an electrical brush, which, in
accordance with the above, determines the formation of ozone. The
manner in which the experiment was made is as follows : (Pog. Ann.,
Ixviii, 38.)

A piece of phosphorus an inch long, having a clear surface, was
placed on a board in conducting connexion with the earth, and the
freeend of a wire, connected with the conductorof an electrical machine,
brought within a few lines of the pliosphorus. At a temperature of
— 2° the phosphorus by itself did not shine in the dark; but when the
machine was put in motion, so that an electrical brush played against
the piece of phosphorus, a light flame at once issued from its whole
length, and, like the tail of a comet, extended far beyond the piece of
phosphorus. If the machine be stopped the illumination of the phos-
phorus ceases in a few seconds.

Schonbein obtained a very beautiful illumination by the following
arrangement : A copper wire was coiled around a stick of phosphorus
an inch long, so that the end of the wire extended about a line beyond
the phosphorus, as shown in fig. 85. The ^'=' ^^'

other end of the wire is connected with the
conductor of an electrical machine. At a
temperature below U° the phosphorus did
not shine at all in the greatest darkness ;
but in turning the electrical machine, so that a strong brush appeared
at the end of ihe coil, a luminous cone protruded from the middle of
the brush, which attained a length varying from a i'ew inches to some
feet, according to circumstances. The longest cone obtained by Schon-
bein was 2| feet. With powerful machines such cones should be
obtained of still greater length.

It may be assumed without hesitation that this luminous train is
nothing else than the vapor of phosphorus in slow combustion.

The luminous train vanishes with the electrical brush.

GALVANISM.

[Continued from page 423 of the Report ol 1855.]

SECTION FOURTH.

GALVANIC PHENOMENA OF LIGHT AND HEAT.

§ 54. Production of heat hy the galvanic current — The laws of the;
development of heat produced by the galvanic current in metallic^
wires, have been investigfated bv Joule, (Phil. Magazine, Oct., 1841,)
and by Lenz, (P. A. LIX, pp. 203 & 407, LXI, p. 18.)

The memoir of Joule not being within my reach, I shall only report i
on the researches of Lenz, and this will be sufficient, since the results
of the Russian and of the English physicist agreee.

The first two sections of the memoir of Lenz, in vol. LIX of Pog. .
Ann., contain only introductory matter, to which we shall but briefly v;
refer.

To measure the strength of the current Lenz made use of a Nerv-
ander's tangent compass, which was most carefully constructed and
tested. He found by accurate experiments that up to 40° the strengths
of the currents are proportional to the tangents of the angles of de-
flection.

Lenz also compared his tangent compass with the decomposition of
water. It results, from his numerous and accurate experiments, that i
the tangent of the observed angle of deflection is to be multiplied by '
39.3 in order to obtain the reduced quantity of detonating gas from i
the same current per minute, expressed in cubic-centimetres. Lenz '.
takes for his unit a current which causes a deflection in his tangent t
compass of 1°, and this produces 0.686 c, c. of the mixed gases in at
minute. Since our unit of current is that which gives 1 c. c. per '
minute, it is evident that Lenz's values of strength of current must ;
be multiplied by 0.686 to reduce them to our unit. In what follows i
I shall always make use of the reduced values for the strength of cur- •
rent, instead of those of Lenz.

As the unit of resistance Lenz takes the resistance of one wind of '
his rheostat (agometre) of Grerman silver, which, according to his
statement, is equal to the resistance of a copper wire of 6.358 English
feet in length, and 0.0336 English inch in diameter. Hence, it appears
that this unit of resistance is equal to 2.66 of our own ; the values of
Lenz mu«t therefore be multiplied by 2.66 to reduce them to our
unit.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 395

To measure the heat produced hy the galvanic current in a metallic

ire, Lenz used the apparatus represented in Fig. 47.

In the middle of the board is fastened the ^'s- '^^*

lass stopper B, ground to fit into the neck
fa glass jar which, by means of some grease,
aay be fitted upon it air and water-tight.
^ brass clamp, omitted in the figure, presses
he lower rim of the neck of the jar to the
)oard, so that it cannot be displaced even by
dolent motions of the apparatus. The jar
las ground in its bottom a cylindrical hole,
nto which the fluid can be poured, and
'lihrough which, also, a thermometer can be
inserted by means of a cork. The thermom-
eter used was divided to 4^ of a degree. Two
pieces of wire of about 1 line in diameter are
passed through perforations in the glass stopper and ceuiented there.
'Their upper extremities projecting into the jar are somewhat conical,
and made of platinum ; these platinum cones are soldered to copper
wires of equal diameter, which, let into the board, pass to the screw-
clamps s, into which the conducting wires from the poles of the battery
are screwed. The wire to be heated is previously coiled into a spiral
around a cylinder of 1 — 2 lines in diameter, and has its ends clamped
upon the cones by means of two little pieces of platinum. It remains
erect by its own elasticity, its coils not touching anywhere.

The fluid with which the jar was filled, so far at least as en-

' tirely to cover the wire-spiral, was spirit of wine containing 85 to 86

' per cent, of alcohol, for water is so good a conductor that a part of the

current would pass through it and not through the wire, as becomes

immediately apparent from the feeble evolution of gas.

After the wire-spiral was properly fastened and a measured quantity
of spirit of wine poured into the jar the apparatus, together with the
multiplier (Nervander's tangent compass) and the rheostat, were
inserted in the circuit of a Daniell's battery. By means of the rheo-
stat the current was always kept at a constant strength ; and then the
time required to raise the thermometer in the spirit of wine a certain
number of degrees was noted. By turning round the apparatus in a
small circle, the fluid was made to rotate, whereby an equal distribu-
tion of the temperature throughout its mass was produced.

In order to avoid the errors arising from the loss of heat to sur-
rounding bodies, the spirit of wine was previously cooled below the
temperature of the air, and the experiment finished when its tempera-
ture was just as many degrees above that of the surrounding air as it
had been below it at the commencement.

To give a clear idea of the course of the investigation, the individual
steps for one series of experiments will be described at length.

The temperature of the air being 16° R, the spirit of wine was
cooled by means of ice down to 7° and poured into the jar ; the circuit
was closed and the needle by means of the rheostat constantly kept at
35° ; next, with a watch marking seconds, the exact instant was ob-
served when the temperature of the spirit was 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and

396

EECElfT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

15 degrees, and also the instant when it was 16, 17, 18, &c., to 2
degrees, in this way it was found that the time required to raise th
temperature of the spirit of wine from —

15 to 17 viz: 2'

was

14 '

' 18

4

13 '

' 19

6

12 '

' 20

8

11 '

' 21

10

10 '

' 22

12

1.05 minutes.

2.22

3.25

4.30

5.42

6.53

and hence it follows that the time t, necessary to raise the tempera-i
lure of the spirit of wine 1°, was on an average 0.542 minutes.

The resistance to conduction of the spiral wire was ascertained byl
observing, (after the removal of the apparatus of fig. 47 from thel
circuit,) how many turns of the rheostat had to be inserted, in order,
to bring the current again to the same strength that it had with thel
heating apparatus in the circuit.

The following table contains the results of a great number of such'
experiments:

<<- .

O _to

o C

Kind of wire.

s.

t.

I.

1.

German silver, a

6.93
10.53
14.30
10.53
14.30
18.32
14.30
18.32
14.30
IS, 32
22.69
18. 32
22. 69
27.52
32.98
27.52

1.349
0.571
0. 300
0.920
0.481
0.288
0.457
0. 384
0. 5,55
0. 325
0. 435
1.301
0.835
0.575
0.381
0.544

93.50

2.
3.
4-.

do

do

German silver, b

93.63
93. 94

58. 76

ft,

do

58 64

6.

7.
8,

do

do

German silver, c

59.01
60. 16
44. 59

9

Platinum

50. 45

10

do

51 41

11

Iron

24. 92

n,

Copper

13. 90

l.S

do

13. 90

14

do

13.92

15.
IG.

-..do

-..do

14.01
14.31

Three different wires of German silver Avere used in the experiments ;
that designated by a was the thinnest ; h was a little thicker than a
and c a little thicker than h.

In this table s denotes the force of the current ; I the resistance to
conduction of the wire, expressed in units ; and t is the time neces-
sary to raise the temperature of the spirit of wine 1°. How the value
of t was determined each time from a series of experiments has already
been stated above.

The quantity of spirit of wine poured into the jar was always nearly
the same, or 90 grammes on an average.

If we compare all those series of experiments in which the force of

RECENT PROGSESS IN PHYSICS. 397

le current was the same, it appears that the product of t and I re-
lains pretty nearly constant. It is —

'or the current 10.53 :

(2.) German silver, a t I z= 53.46

(4.) German silver, 6..... t I =z 54.06

for the current 14.30 :

' (3.) German silver, a t I =z 28.18

(5.) German silver, h tl = 28.11

(7.) German silver, h tl z=z 27.40

(9.) Platinum tl = 28.00

Vor the current 18.32:

(6.) German silver, 6 tl^=z 16.99

(8.) German silver, c t I ■=. 17.12

(10.) Platinum tl= 10.71

' (12.) Copper tl= 18.08

iFor the current 22.69:

(11.) Iron tl = 10.84

(13.) Copper tl = 11.60

The equality of the values o^ t I for one and the same current is so
apparent that we may safely assume that the time of heating is in-
versely proportional to the resistance to conduction, or in other words,
that the heat produced in a given time is directly proportional to the
resistance to conduction, and independent upon other properties of the
metaU

In order to find out how the production of heat depends on the force
'of the current, we must compare the experiments that were made with
the same wire, and with different currents ; from these it appears that
the value of s'-t is nearly constant for the same wire. The results are
as follows :

For the German silver wire a :

1 sH= 64.8

2 sH=z 63.3

3 sH = 61.3

For the German silver wire b:

4 s-t= 102.0

5 s-t= 98.4

6 sH= 96.7

7 sH= 93.5

For the platinum wire:

9 sH = 113.5

10 s-t=: 109.1

For the copper v/ire :

12 sH= 436.6

13 5-^ = 429.9

14 sH= 435.5

15 sH = 414.2

16 sH = 412,0

By these experiments, therefore, it is demonstrated that:

1. The production of heat is proportional to the resistance cf the wires
to conduction.

398 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

2. The production of heat is proportional to the squares of the fow\
of the currents.

If, therefore, t denotes the time wliich is required for the currenti
with the resistance to conduction I, to raise the temperature of a give!
quantity of spirit of wine 1° R, then s'-tl will be the time necessary t
produce the same amount of heat in the same quantity of spirit^ l
the unit of the strength of current with the unit of resistance to coi>"^
duction. Since now in all the experiments the quantity of spirit <
wine was nearly the same, the product s-tl must also be nearly th
same for all of the series in the above table. The product s'^t I hei
the following values for the diiferent series of experiments :
Series. s-tl.

1 6059

2 5927

3 5758

4 5994

5 5770

6 5706

7 5625

8 5747

9 5726

10 5609

11 5975

12 6069

13 5976

14 6062

15 5803

16 5896

Mean 5856

The quantity of spirit heated in these experiments together witlt'
that of the glass, reduced by the relation of the specific heats to spirit!
was 118 grammes.

The unit of the force of current produces, therefore, when passing;
through a wire which offers the unit of resistance to conduction, an
much heat as would be required to raise the temperature of \\l\
grammes of spirit of wine 1° R. in 5856 minutes.

The specific heat of the spirit used in the above experiments is 0.7

to raise, therefore, the temperature of 118 grammes of spirit to a given

degree requires the same quantity of heat as to raise 118.07 "=■ 82. (t

grammes of water to the same degree. For 1 gramme of waterf

therefore, that time amounts to :

5856

Q^-jT = 70.9 minutes;

or if instead of Reaumer's scale that of Celsius is employed, 70,9 . 0,8
■=. 56.72 minutes,* i. e., when the unit of the force of current passes
through a wire, the resistance of which is equal to that of a coppei i
wire of 1 meter in length and l"""" in diameter, the quantity of heat
produced is such as would raise the temperature of 1 gramme of watei
1° C. in 56f minutes.

* In^he memoir of Lenz, an error occurs in this calculation, (P"C[. Ann., LXl, 42,) occa«
sioned probably by mistaking minutes for seconds.

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. 359

If we take for the unit of heat, as is usually done, that quantity
which raises the temperature of one kilogramme of water 1°, then it
follows from the above investigations that the unit of the force of cur-
irent_, in passing through the unit of resistance produces in it 0.001057
units of heat in one hour and 0.0000176 in one minute.

i' § 55, Observations on the results obtained by Lenz. — After Lenz had
"determined the relation between the force of current and the production
of heat in a metallic circuit, the idea naturally occurs that we might
'compare the heat produced in the circuit wire with the quantity of
^detonating gas produced by decomposition of water in the exciting
cells, but a more intimate study of the subject soon proves that such a
comparison cannot lead to a constant result.

If there be a fixed relation between the quantity of detonating gas
and the production of heat for any given arrangement of the Voltaic
battery and a given closing wire, it will be changed as soon as — ceteris
paribus — either the specific resistance to conduction of the battery or
its electromotive force is changed ; for by either of these changes the
strength of current is altered, and the evolution of gas changes pro-
portionally with the force of current, while the production of heat
increases as the squares of this force; and the relation between the
quantity of gas and the heat developed must necessarily become dif-
ferent from what it was before. The heat produced in the closing
circuit, therefore, can by no means be considered as a thermal equiva-
lent of the detonating gas evolved in the exciting cells, and con-
sequently there can be no definite relation between the heat produced
by exploding a certain quantity of detonating gas, and that set free in
the closing circuit during the evolution of an equal quantity of gas
in the exciting cells of a galvanic battery.

The attempt to compare, even with only approximate correctness,
the quantity of electricity of the electrical machine with that of Volta's
apparatus, has always, hitherto, been unsuccessful. After Lenz's
accurate researches on the production of heat by the galvanic current,
and Riess' reliable quantitative determinations of the heat set free in
a wire by the passage of the discharge of a Leyden jar, at first sight
it would seem that a basis was found for this comparison. But here
too the result on examination is a negative one.

From the rather large quantity of heat produced in metallic wires
by the discharge of the jar, we should be disposed to infer that a rather
large quantity of electricity was brought into action thereby ; according
to the experiments before mentioned* the increase of heat in the pla-

tinum wire of the air thermometer for -^ = 1 is equal to 0.3787, or

in round numbers equal to 0.4. That wire had a diameter of 0.072'"
and a length of 59.7'" and therefore it weighed about 60 milligrammes ;
to raise the temperature of this wire 0.4° requires, as can easily be
computed, 0.000000768 units of heat.

Let us now consider what quantity of heat would have been set free
in the same platinum wire by the unit of galvanic current. In the

* See Report of 1856, p. 437.

400 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

unit of resistance, the unit of current produces 0.0000176 units of heat
per minute ; but the resistance to conduction of such a platinum wire
as can easily be calculated, is equal to 6 and consequently by the unit
of current, 0.0000176 X 6 =r 0.0001 units of heat would have been
produced in it. The increase of temperature in the platinum wire

from the discharge of the jar for -^- = 1, viz: 0.000000768 is there-

o

fore nearly yj,^ of that produced by the unit of force of the current
durino; one minute in the same wire. When 5=1, i. e. when the
electricity is accumulated in one of the jars (mentioned in the experi-
ment above quoted,) q must also be equal to 1 . For s = 1 and q = 10,
i. e. when the jar is charged with 10 sparks from the measuring jar
under the circumstances formerly explained, then its discharge must
produce in a metallic wire an increase of heat nearly equal to that
produced by the unit of current during one minute in the same wire.
But to charge the jar with q = 10, the machine will scarcely require
to be turned for one minute, and therefore the inference might be
drawn from a superficial investigation of the production of heat, that .
turning the machine for one minute would produce a quantity of elec-
tricity equal to the chemical unit of the galvanic current.

But that such a comparison, or rather such a conclusion from the
comparison can not at all be admitted, is evident from the fact, that
by means of the electrical machine no perceptible decomposition of
water can be obtained, while one cubic centimetre of detonating gas
ought to be readily evolved per minute.

But a more careful investigation soon shows that the discharge of
the jar and the galvanic current act under entirely different and not i
comparable conditions, in producing heat in the Avire.

The same charge of the jar when passing more slowly through a
wire produces less heat in it, and the increase of temperature becomes
imperceptible as soon as the time of discharge reaches a measurable
duration ; if, therefore, the quantity of electricity, obtained by turning
the machine for one minute, when accumulated in the jar produces by
its discharge perceptible heat, the same quantity of electricity dis-
charged through the wire in a continuous current during one minute, ,
will not perceptibly raise the temperature of the wire. But only such i
a current can be compared with the galvanic. In order to compare e
the electricity of the machine with that of the battery in relation to )
quantity, we should be able to measure the quantity of heat which is -
produced in a metallic wire by the electricity passing through it from
the conductor of the machine. The instantaneous discharge of an
accumulated quantity of electricity cannot directly be compared with
a continuous current. That the process by which heat is evolved in
the discharge of the Leyden jar is entirely different from that of the .''
galvanic current, is also evident from the fact, that with the former i
not only the quantity of electricity discharged through them is con-
cerned, but also the area of surface upon which it was previously
distributed ; thus, in the production of heat by the discharge of the
jar, factors come into question which with the current do not appear
at all. The galvanic current and the discharge of the jar have, as far
as regards the production of heat in metallic wires only this in com-

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

401

mon, that the rise of temperature is proportional to the square of the
;pantity of electricity and to the resistance of the conductino; wire.

§56. Ignition of metallic loires hy the galvanic current. — While the
phenomena of the ignition of metallic wires by means of the discharge
of the Leyden jar have been elucidated by the ingenious researches of
Riess, corresponding investigations are wanting in reference to the
galvanic current, though the latter might probably ofier less diffi-
culties than the former.

In Casselmann's treatise (already mentioned) " On the galvanic
carbon- zinc battery, Marburg, 1844," the following remark occurs on
page 43 :

"A platinum wire of considerable length used for closing the
circuit, does not become red hot, but when shortened to a certain
length it does. Lessening this, however, by shortening it more and
more it reaches finally a length at which it does not become red hot
any more, and from this it follows that the ignition of the closing
wire reaches a maximum only when its resistance to conduction bears
a certain proportion to the quantity of electricity forcing its way
through it."

If the current of a battery makes a wire red hot by passing through
it, still the force of this current must increase by shortening the wire,
and it therefore appears not quite probable that the stronger current
should no longer heat the shorter piece of wire to redness. To throw-
some light on this point, I made a series of experiments myself, since,
as above remarked, no thorough investigations have been made on this
law of ignition in the galvanic current.

My experiments were made in the following manner: In the circuit
of the battery S (fig. 48) there was inserted at H, a wire-holder,
which will next be described, and at i>, a tangent comnass. At Q
there was a little mercury cup, by means of which the circuit could
readily be opened and closed.

The wire-holder is represented in fig. 49. Upon a board two brass
rods were fastened, on each of which were two screw clami>,s capable
of sliding up and down.

Fiff. «.

Fig. 48.

26 s

402

EECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

In one of the clamps a, the connecting wire from one pole of the'S
battery was screwed and in the other that leading to the tangent- j
compass. Between the clamps 6, the experimental wires were ex-
tended and this was always done before closing the battery. The con-
necting wires between S, H, B, Q and S, were copper wires about |
line in diameter, and of a total length not exceeding 5 metres, so
that their resistance was not considerable.

After the wire to be experimented upon was properly inserted at E
and all the other connexions properly made, the circuit was closed ati
Q ; and, after the compass needle had come to rest, its deflection was.
observed and at the same time the ax)pearance of the ignition in the!
wire.

The course of the experiments will become evident from the follow-^
ing tables which contain the results of the observations.

The first three sets of experiments were made with platinum w'lrt
of 0.45 millimetres in diameter.

FIRSr SERIES.
Battery of 40 carhon-zinc cups.

Length of

Deflection of com-

Appearance of ignition.

wire.

pass needle.

Mdrci.

o

1.5

45

1.3

46

Feeble, only in some spots.

1.1

47

Feeble throughout the whole length.

1.0

48

Red hot.

0.8

50

Bright red.

0.5

66

Nearly white hot.

SECOND SERIES.

Battery of 24 carhon-zinc cups.

0.6

44

0.5

45

Feeble, only in some spots.

0.4

4G

Somewhat increased.

0.3

48

Red hot throughout the whole length.

0.1

51

Bright red.

THIRD SERIES.

Battery of VI carbon- zinc cups.

0.3

46

0.3

47

0.2

48

0.1

60

Feeble, nearly throughout the whole length.

Still feeble throughout.

Red hot.

Bright red. '*il[

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS

403

i Two series of experiments with an iron wire of 0.42 millimetre in
iiameter gave the iollowing results :

FOURTH SERIES.

Battery of 24 carbon-zinc cups.

Length of
wire.

Deflection of com-
pass needle.

Appearance of ignition.

Metres.
1

0. S
0.6
0.4
0.3

o

32
33
34

35

In some places.

Not quite tiiroughout the entire length.

Red hot.

Bright red.

Melted.

FIFTH SERIES, /

Battery of 12 carbon-zinc cups.

In siomc places.
Somewhat increased.
Intensely red hot.
Melted.

f In reference to the experiments with iron wire it is to be remarked
'hat in each one a new piece was inserted, because by ignition the
urface was oxydized, and consequently the wire was altered.

These experiments prove that one and the same loire produces, luith
he same strength of current, the same phenomena of ignition, whatever
nay be its length.

In the platinum wire of 0.45 metre in diameter a partial ignition
s produced by a strength of current corresponding to a deflection of
t5° to 46°. With 40 elements this is effected in a wire of 1.3
netre in length, with 24 cups in one of 0.5 metre, and with 12 cups
n one of 0.4 metre.

The red heat apjiears in all these experiments with a force of cur-
'ent of 48°, while in the first series the length of wire is 1 metre, in
;he second 0.3 metre, and in the third 0.2 metre.

The light red heat occurs with a strength of current of 50 to 51°.

Quite similar are the results from the experiments with the iron wire.
Partial ignition ajjpears with a force of current of 82° to 33°, intense red
heat with 35°. These experiments therefore do not show the pecu-
liarity mentioned by Casselmann. It is to be regretted that he gives
no more exact details, from which perhaps the reason of the anomaly
observed by him could be explained. I presume, liowever, that it is
caused by the great conduction of heat by the mass of the metal in the
wire clamps, which has a considerable influence with very short wires.

404

RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

Casselmann used a wire-holder similar to that represented in fig 4 J
By observing attentively a wire held by it while it is red hot, v,
perceive that in the immediate vicinity of the clamps its glow is coi
siderably less than in the middle. If now the wire be so far shorlene
that the cooling influence of the clamps extends to its middle it seem
easy to explain how, by shortening the length of the wire, the ph(i
nomena of ignition finally disappear. This is also seen from th
following observation :

A platinum wire 0.21 metre in diameter was inserted in the circui
of a sinojle carbon-zinc cup. With a length of 3 centimetres it bt
came feebly red hot, while the tangent compass indicated 26°; bt
when the same wire was shortened to 1 centimetre no ignition wav
produced, even with a current of 34°.

When, instead of the single element, two Bunsen's cups were used?
the appearances of ignition were entirely identical with the length;
of both 3 and 1 centimetre, though the corresponding deflection i
the former case was 34°, and in the latter (the shorter wire) 44°.

§ 57. Relation beliveen the diameter and force of current in metallv
wires ignited by the galvanic current, — The above experiments do nc
illustrate the relation between the force of current and the diametc
of the wires, as corresponding to a certain degree of ignition, becaus
only the length, but not the diameter of the wire, was varied.

The following table gives the results of a set of experiments mad'
with platinum wires of 1 decimetre in length and variable diameters'

mm.
C.3

0.39

0.45*

0.75

Degree of ignition.

Feeble

Red hot

Bright red

Very bright red.

Feeble

Red hot

Bright red

Feeble

Red hot

Bright red

Nearly white hot

Red hot

Bright red

p »■

t W)

S ffl

.^

Cj -*^

<^ o

S II

V

o °=

P

fe

o

34

47. ]8

36

f>0. 82

3d

54.67

42

63. 00

43

65. 24

46

7^.45

48

77.77

47

75. 06

48

77.77

50.3

84. 42

56

103.74

60

121.24

66

157. 22

D

163.9
169.4
1H2.2
210.0
163.7
1^^5.5
199.5
106.6
172.2
1-7.6
230. 3
161.7
209. 3

i

The experiments marked * are taken from the former series, (6(;
page 420.) _ . . ,

Jb'rom this series of experiments we may assume that, in order t
pi'oduce ihe same degree oj ignition^ the force of current must increaa
^proportionally to the diameter of the ivires. According to this law, fo!

«

RECENT PEOGEESS IN PHYSICS. 405

tV same degree of ignition the quotient of the diameter of the wire
iro the corresponding force of current should be a constant quantity.
Te last column of the previous table contains this quotient. It is :
.^'or feeble ignition —

With the diameter

0.3

163.9

! 0.39

163.7

0.45
1 Mean

166.6

164.7

1

ror red heat —

0.3

169.4

0.39

185.5

! 0.45

172.2

0.75
Mean

161.7

172.2

(For bright red heat —

03

182.2

0.39

199.5

0.45

187.6

0.75

209.3

Mean

.194.6

Deviation from the mean.

— 0.8

— 1.0
+ 1.9

— 2.8
+ 13.3

— 10.5

— 12.4

-f 4.9

— 7.0
+ 14.7

For very bright red, nearly white heat —

0.3 210.0 —10

0.45 230.0 4- 10

Mean 220.0

The deviations from the mean are so irregularly distributed, in
ispect to their quantity as well as to their sign, that without hesita-
On we may attribute them to errors of observation. That these
fjviations are so considerable, varying up to 7 per cent, of the cor-
:sponding quotients, will not surprise us if we consider that the
'igrees of ignition are not measured, but only estimated.

A set of experiments similar to the above, with iron wire, gave the
llowing results :

Diameter.

Degree of ignition,

Deflection. Force of current.

. s

D

V. s= 70, tang. v.

w.

0.2

Feeble.

19° 24.08

120.4

u

Red.

20 25.41

127.0

0.255

Feeble.

24 31.15

122.1

((

Red.

25 32.62

127 9

0.38

Feeble.

34 47.18

124.1

((

Red.

38 55.67

146.1

0.75

Feeble.

52 89.6

119.4

((

Red.

56 103.74

131.3

406 RECENT PROGRESS IN PHYSICS.

The quotient ^r- is therefore :
For feeble ignition —

I

With the diameter.

Deviation from the mean,

0.2

120.4

—

1.1

■0.255

122.1

H-

0.6

0.38

124.1

+

2.6

0.75

119.4

2.1

Mean

121.5

For red heat —

0.2

127.0

—

7.8

0.255

127.9

—

6.9

0.38

146.1

+ 11.3

0.75

138.3

+

3.5

Mean

134.8

This series therefore confirms the results we obtained from the ei'
periments with the platinum wire.

With copper wire the following results were obtained :

Diameter.

Degree of ignition.

Deflection.

Force of current,

s
D.

D.

V. S

=r 70. tang.

V.

0.2

Feeble.

48°

77.77

388.8

ii

Red.

52

89.60

448,0

•0.255

Eed.

59

116.48

418.3

With silver wire :

0.2

Red.*

51

86.